Compare and contrast mesopotamia and egypt Essay Example for Free

Compare and contrast mesopotamia and egypt EssayBoth Mesopotamia and Egypt have different universal views, which past affected their culture. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers of Mesopotamia have unpredictable flood patterns. This affected their view of the universe because the inability to prepare for floods leads the Mesopotamians to believe that the world was harsh and unforgiving. In contrast, the predictable, opportune floods of the Egyptian Nile led to a trust in supernatural powers. These polar opposite views also were seen in and affected the religious opinions of the afterlife. Due to the accounts Gilgamesh, a hero in an Egyptian epic, the afterlife is seen in a terrorizing light, whereas Mesopotamians looked forward to it. A huge division in these Middle Eastern civilizations cultures were the formation of urbanization, and phase systems. In Mesopotamia, a structured 3-part class system was developed, along with Hammurabis Law Code.The top class included land owning ma les and artisans, as well as royals and warriors. The middle class contained dependent people attached to land, and at the bottom was slaves employed for domestic work. Also the freedoms and some rights of women were lost around the second millennium. In Egypt, there too were classes, yet they werent as enforced and structured. Woman were held at a higher standard here because they werent secluded in the process of urbanization and class structure, like they were in Mesopotamia.Economically, both regions participated in trade that was under state control, and their economic growth was related to commerce. Although, Mesopotamia relied solely on imports, while Egypt had an import export system within its region along the Nile. Mesopotamia was very poor in resources. In contrast, Egypt was well endowed with resources, yet in effect(p) isolationism, which made global economic trade through commerce impossible.

Yoga Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Yoga Philosophy EssayMost of the time when people think about yoga they simply estimate contorting their bodies into strange and awkward positions in hopes of keeping themselves in shape. I have to admit that I was one of those people. However, I have come to understand that the nontextual matter of yoga is much more complex than I had ever imagined. This form of exercise, that I thought was restricted to famous people attempting to keep there movie champ physiques, is becoming an epidemic among modern society. Yoga is much more than contorting your body into strange and somewhat un-normal positions.Mind and Body explains that Yoga is both philosophic and metaphysic conditioning. This art is also a general name for the controls and techniques that argon used to create mythic exclusivelyy the perfect body, mind, and spirit. Along with the above definition of yoga, we must look at it as one of the cardinal systems of Indian philosophy Darshanus, meaning viewpoint or vision fr om the root (Hewitt). Yoga differs from all other systems because it is not content on the metaphysical knowledge, but has devised and presented serviceable techniques that allow intellectual understanding and can be reinforced by experimental knowing.The fundamental principle of Yoga philosophy is that nothing exists beyond the mind and its consciousness. The fair game of this philosophy is to dig up misconceptions about the existence of external realities from the minds of men. It believes that it is possible to reach this stage of self realization through regular practice of yogistic meditative processes that bring complete withdrawal or detachment from all false sources of knowledge and exposes an inner mind of balanced calm and tranquility (Mind and Body).The sense of meditative healing and yogic philosophy works on the five states of the mind, the five modifications of the mind, and the nine impediments of the mind. To begin the philosophy exposes the five states of the mi nd which include disturbed, confused, distracted, concentrated, and all balanced. The first three stages are causes of impediment to the mind and are considered negative. says Hewitt. The last two stages of mind are positive and engaging to meditation.Various yogic practices are designed for achieving these two particular states of mind. The yogic philosophy also breaks down the forms of thought or modifications of the mind into fives stages. These stages include comprehension, misunderstanding, conceptualization, deep sleep, and memory. The knowledge gained from either arresting or inner perception, inference, or verbal authority is all considered to be true knowledge according to yoga. However deep sleep, conceptualization, and memory are looked at as negative modifications to the mind in particular forms.(Mind and Body) Last are the nine impediments of the mind that define the yogic philosophy. Sickness, incompetence, doubt, delusion, fatigue, overindulgence, confusion, lack o f perseverance, and regression are all results of the modifications to the mind and forms of thought. These nine conditions are the greatest causes of all sorrows, miseries and pain, which disturb the mind and result in distractions and loss of mental tranquility. Knowing all this changes my entire aspect on yoga.I understand that this art that people engage in is much more complex than simply body positions and the humming that I ofttimes associated with this practice. The philosophy of yoga encompasses all the elements of mind, body, and spirit. References Mind Body Focused. August 29, 2008 . Claire, Thomas. Yoga for Men Postures for Healthy, Stress-free Living . Franklin Lakes The Career Press, 2004. Hewitt, James. The Complete YOGA Book. London Hutchison Publishing Group Limited, 1977.

Cell Structure And Transport Biology Essay

Cell Structure And Transport Biology EssayCells can be split into two types, prokaryotic (see figure 1) and eukaryotic (See figure 2). Karyose originates from a Greek, meaning kernel, as in a kernel of grain. In physiology, it is used to refer to the nucleus of a cadre. master means before, and eu means true. Therefore you could say that prokaryotic means before a nucleus and eukaryotic means possessing a true nucleus. (Wikipedia) prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have many differences and few similarities.Eukaryotic cells and lager than prokaryotic cells, a eukaryotic cell is usu entirelyy 10nm in diameter where as a prokaryotic cell in 1nm in length.(Class Notes)Eukaryotic cells stock a nucleus, protected by a double membrane. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus. The purpose of the nucleus is to sequester the desoxyribonucleic acid-related functions of the big eukaryotic cell into a littler chamber, for improved efficiency. This function is unnecessary for the prokaryot ic cell as the cell is smaller and all materials within the cell be close together. However prokaryotic cells do have DNA and DNA functions.Eukaryotic DNA contains proteins called histones, and these are organised into chromosomes prokaryotic DNA has no histones, there are no chromosomes in a prokaryotic cell. A eukaryotic cell contains a number of linear chromosomes a prokaryotic cell contains only one circular DNA molecule and a varied assortment of much smaller circlets of DNA called plasmids. A prokaryotic cell is smaller and simpler it requires far fewer genes to operate than the eukaryotic cell. (Rowlands, 2000)Eukaryotic cells contains large numbers of mitochondria, the number of these varies according to the sizing and type of cell. Mitochondria support the protein of the electron transport chain of the aerobic respiration within the cell supplying the cell with ATP, scarcely this organelle is not rigid in a prokaryotic cell. (Williams)Eukaryotic cells also contain endopl asmic second stomach, however there is none present in a prokaryotic cell. Endoplasmic reticulum comes in two hammers, more or less and smooth. Rough endoplasmic reticulum helps to compartmentalize the cell, and it serves as routes for the transport of materials from one part of the cell to another. It is also associated with lipid synthesis and protein synthesis. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for generating new layers for golgi bodies. Golgi bodies are stacks of sacs called cisternae. The function of golgi bodies is to process materials manu contingentured by the cell. The other kind of golgi vesicle contains materials to be secreted from the cell. These materials are not bollix up products but chemicals manufactured by the cell for export (hormones and pheromones for causa).Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have many ribosomes, however the ribosomes of the eukaryotic cells are larger and more interlacing than those of the prokaryotic cell. Ribosomes are do out of a special class of RNA molecules and a specific collection of different proteins. A eukaryotic ribosome is made up of five types of rRNA and well-nigh eighty types of proteins. However a prokaryotic cells ribosomes are made up of only three types of rRNA and approximately fifty types of protein.The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells contains a mixed collection of organelles and many of the organelles are enclosed in their own membranes. However the prokaryotic cell contains no membrane-bound organelles that are independent of the plasma membrane.Some prokaryotic cells contain flagella. These organisms which are usually single celled and are used for locomotion. Unlike the threat of a eukaryotic cell, this mechanism lacks an internal structure. The prokaryotic flagellum is shaped like a corkscrew and propels the cell where as in a eukaryotic cell where the flagellum is more complex it moves in a lashing action. (Wikipedia)Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells also differ in regards to what they store. A prokaryotic cell store specialised compounds in the form of granules or droplets. Where as a eukaryotic cell stores glycogen, starch, lipid and in some cases specialised materials of particular organisms.Prokaryotic cells are rig in bacteria and blue green algae, eukaryotic cells are found in fungi plants and animals. (Class Notes)To summarise, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are similar in the fact that they are both are contained by plasma membranes, fill with cytoplasm and also contain ribosomes. Both contain the same kind of DNA as the genetic code for a prokaryotic cell is the same for a eukaryotic cell. However they have many materials present in a eukaryotic cell which are not present in a prokaryotic cell. This is because a eukaryotic cell is much more complex and has more complex process to complete.Microscopic appearance of squamous cells2. The attached diagram represents an electron micrograph of a liver cell. Identify the structuresLabelARough Endoplasmi c reticulumBMitochondriaCNucleusDNucleus MembraneECell MembraneFSmooth endoplasmic reticulumGCytoplasm3. Using appropriate detail with diagrams and sizes where needed, explain how the structure of the following organelles is related to their functionA Rough Endoplasmic reticulumMost ribosomes are attached to the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum is a series of interconnecting flattened tubular tunnels, which are continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus. It runs through the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. The ER of a cell oftentimes takes up more than a tenth of the total cell volume. Rough ER appears rough due to the presence of ribosomes on the membrane. The rough ER is concern with the transportation of proteins, which are made by the ribosomes on the surface of the membranes. The membranes form a series of sheets known as lamellae of reticulum, and these enclose flattened sacs called cisternae. The purpose of this is to form a maz e-like structure so that there is a very large surface area for chemical reactions to take place. Information coded in DNA sequences in the nucleus is transcribed as messenger RNA. Messenger RNA exits the nucleus through pores in the nuclear windbag to enter the cytoplasm. At the ribosomes on the rough ER, the messenger RNA is translated into proteins. The newly made proteins are taken into the tubes of the rough ER so that they cannot escape into the cytoplasm, and are threaded through pores in the membrane to accumulate in the cisternal space where they can fold into their normal three-dimensional shape. Proteins made by the rough ER are then either secreted or used where they are needed within the cell. (Roberts, 2009)B MitochondriaThe mitochondrion produces energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is produced when organic compounds are completely broken overthrow to carbon dioxide and water. One of the main conditions for this process to occur is the presence oxygen. Each mitochondrion has a double-membrane system. The inner membrane is folded repeatedly and it is also known as cristae. The outer membrane faces the cytoplasm. This complex system creates two divisions. In the outer division, enzymes and other proteins stockpile hydrogen ions. These ions then flow into the inner compartment. The energy subjective creates ATP-formation. Hydrogen binds with oxygen to produce the end product, water. (Roberts, 2009)C NucleusThe nucleus is usually spherical and about 10m across, it has two main functions. Firstly, it segregates all the DNA molecules from the cytoplasm. Secondly, the nuclear membranes administer as a boundary where cells control the movement of substances to and from the cytoplasm. The nucleus is made up from a few constituents. The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane system that has two lipid bilayers in which many protein molecules are firmly established. This prevents water-soluble substances to move without restriction in to and out of a nucleus. The second percentage is nucleolus, which is a highly packed cluster of RNA and proteins, which construct to make subunits of ribosomes. (Roberts, 2009)4. The structures A and F may be functionally associated in extracellular secretions (as for example salivary glands). Give an illustrated answer to show this association.The rough endoplasmic reticulum is snarled in the formation of the Golgi body. The Golgi body is created by the rough endoplasmic reticulum as a sequence of vesicles containing protein. As these come together the protein modifies with carbohydrate molecules attached, this leading to glycopeptides being produced. The glycopeptides are then pinched from the ends of the Golgi body and move toward the cytoplasmic membrane. These then amalgamate together and a material is secreted. (Class Notes)5. Lysosomes are important in certain intracellular activities. Using a sequence of annotated diagrams, show the signifigance of these structures in th e destruction of outcast organelles.Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes referred to as acid hydrolases. They dissolve and digest excess or worn out organelles,(see figure 4) food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. The membrane surrounding a lysosome prevents the digestive enzymes inside from destroying the cell. Lysosomes fuse with vacuoles and dispense their enzymes into the vacuoles, digesting their contents. They are built in the Golgi apparatus. (humpath.com)6. Using diagrams describe the basic chemical structure of the cell membrane (the bimolecular components) and explain why this structure is referred to as the wandering mosaic model.The cell membrane separates a watery cytoplasm from a watery external environment also referred to as the extracellular fluid. The phospholipids are arranged in a double layer (lipid layer) with the hydrophilic heads facing outward (cytoplasm or extracellular fluid) and the hydrophilic tails turned in towards each other. The unsaturated fatty acids are not bonded to each other therefore forming a fluid. (Williams)Embedded within the lipid bilayer are different proteins (hydrophobic parts interact with the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids). The hydrophilic parts of the proteins protrude either in to the cytoplasm or into the extracellular fluid. Some of the proteins are anchored in place while other proteins move about within the bilayer. (Williams)Various organelles within the cytoplasm are also bounded by membranes similar in structure to the cell membrane except for specific combinations of lipids and proteins depending on the particular functions of the organelle. (Williams)Some of the proteins extending into the extracellular fluid have carbohydrates (glycoprotein) attached.Fluid mosaic model (Figure 6)The term fluid is used because the phospholipid molecules and proteins that make up the membrane are free to drift around in fluid motion. The term mosaic is used to describe the pos ition of the protein molecules. The molecules are placed randomly and there is no set pattern. (Wikipedia)b. Describe concisely how the phospholipids and the protein molecules in the cell membrane make the membrane selectively permeable and are involved in cell perception as the therapy using tissues typing/ ocellus transfusion.The cell surface membrane is the boundary between the cell and its environment it has very little mechanical strength but plays a vital region in controlling which materials pass into and out of the cell.Cell membranes contain phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol and polysaccharides. The phospholipids are a major constituent of cell membranes. They naturally form membranes in water because they automatically arrange themselves into a bilayer that is practically impermeable to water and anything that is water soluble. The membrane proteins act as hydrophilic pores these are water filled channels that allow water-soluble chemicals to pass through. These pore s are usually small and highly selective, proteins in the membrane that form pores usually span the entire membrane, but other proteins with other functions can occur only in the top or bottom layer of lipids.Some membrane proteins serve as aircraft carrier molecules in which ions pass through channels in the protein molecule. The movement of ions may occur through facilitated diffusion. The ions may also move against a diffusion gradient in a process known as active transport. Unlike facilitated diffusion, active transport requires ATP. Membrane proteins may also be associated with cell recognition in which patrolling T-cells and antibodies recognize the shape of membrane proteins as self or foreign. These membrane proteins often contain unique carbohydrate chains (antennae) which are involved in the cell recognition process. Recognition glycoproteins may include receptor sites for some hormones and neurotransmitters and various blood antigens. (Cellsalive.com)

Was The Bosnian War An Ethnic Conflict Politics Essay

Was The Bosnian War An Ethnic run afoul Politics EssayThe deal by which one perceives a given situation buns be misleading, especially when the in reachation being relayed is moulded in a position format- to the liking of the transmitter. earthly concern views of the war that took lay in Bosnia between 1992 and 1995 leave most to conclude that the tension was a classic case of pagan contradict. This essay will search the multidimensionality of the divergence in hopes of shedding light on other aras of stress that might construct contributed to the forming or outbreak of the war by assessing the general dissent in hurt of throwaways set in place by theories of heathenish conflict. After proposeing definitions of some key terms that will be utilize in this writing, the essay will tender a brief history of the conflict, single out social and identity entrepreneurs, rediscover roots of any existing specialty or stressors (including polarisation and pillarisation in the conflict), present theories of ethnic conflict, and show a fine compendium with review of literature before concluding. An analysis of the diverse faades in this conflict will serve as a basis for comparison for sustain outs of interest, actors or parties involved, and will highlight how these positionors influenced the surge of thus farts that took place. Can the conflict in Bosnia be considered solely an ethnic conflict? This paper will endeavour to challenge the status of this war, as purely ethnic, by showing that in that location exist dimensions of this conflict which render it impossible to disavow the presence of convincing supporting evidence regarding the role of ethnicity and ethnic diversity as a find for civil war.DefinitionsIt is important to point out that because of the qualifying large number of loss of life and the nature in which that loss took place in this conflict, it can and will be termed as a war and race murder. For the purposes of this essay, while it is not always the case that ethnic groups share exclusive languages or affiliations, ethnicity, will par hold up to the existence of a unique set of racial, historical, linguistic, religious, cultural and/or ancestral traits, all shared specifically by a given group of individuals. theme and ethnic identity, touch on the b put togethers of a single concept, identity it would seem fitting to relate them in terms of the conflict to be mentioned, as they two play a part in its history. Walker Connor defines this type of identity as being the self view of ones group, rather than the tangible characteristics, that is of essence in determining the existence or non-existence of ones population (Qtd in Davis, 1999), while the presence of this type of identity is not always st adapted or fixed, as ethnicity is alive(p) (Feron, Introduction to Concepts of Conflict, War Violence 2009). This essay will highlight four groups involved in this conflict the Serbs (mainly Orthodox gr oup), the Bosniaks (Muslim group), the Croats (mainly Catholic group), and potential causative international actors involved unionizely or indirectly in this conflict by participation or interest. A key term in this essay, prejudice, is defined by Herbert Blumer as a protective device. It break aways however short-sightedly to preserve the integrity and position of the dominant group (Qtd in Kunovich and Hodson, 2002). Lastly, the term ethnic conflict, will indicate a situation of conflict, a clashing of goals among two or more(prenominal) parties or ethnic groups, sometimes depicting ancient hatreds, discrimination or victimisation through the use of media outlets and/or historical account, the possible involvement of ethnic or identity entrepreneurs whose contribution directly or indirectly leads to a primary form of stress placed on any of the given parties or ethnic groups, differentiating the group in a way which might lead to the birth of a sense of external threat and re sulting in a need to preserve the identity itself (Feron, Ethnicity Conflict 2009).HistoryThe Former Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) has had a multi-cultural and was always do up of multi-ethnic countries, while always falling under new rule or administration- each guided by different ideologies. This foundation makes for a breeding ground of multiplicity, resentment, gains and losses, and most of all change ever-present. As communism lost is hold on FRY, new, nationalist and separatist ideologies began to grow popular among the territories. Slobodan milo maizeevi was placed into office in 1989, and quickly amended the Serbia constitution to allow for influence in Kosovo and Vojvodina (Region currently in the North of Serbia, which used to pertain to Hungary), which gave Serbia admission price to more votes on the federal level of Yugoslavias regime. Montenegros vote then meant an additional vote for Serbia, leaving Serbia as the most positionful hand in the government (Ron 2000) . Bosnia was considered an exotic country among European nations, due to its inhabitants and rich melange of cultures. Bosnia was a universal country where more than a quarter of marriages cut through cultural forks (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). As the new nationalist and separatist mentalities span over the territories of FRY, mainly in Croatia and Serbia, things began to become clear that change was in the near future. After attempts to divide up Bosnia, into administrative and ethnic districts, corroborated semi-successful, but not without outbreaks for justice, it seemed inevitable that the moment had come for emancipation. Bosnia was already divided into the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, Republika Srpska, and around the aforementioned(prenominal) time, both Slovenia and Croatia gaining independence from FRY. The then unseen yet not unthought-of situation was more evident day by day if Slovenia and Croatia were to secede from Yugoslavia, Bosnia would sooner literally be at the mercy of the Milosevic regime. Problems would then be expected from all sides of Bosnia, not to mention the larger evil, as seen by Bosnians in that moment- colossal Serbia. Due to the separation of Croatia and Slovenia, eventide after thoughts to pursue a looser Yugoslavia Serbia would begin feeling its foundation and republic, quickly falling out beneath it, this only caused semipolitical leaders to consider preemptive action, in the form of attack. The republic became more unstable than ever when the government in Bosnia made it clear that when Slovenia and Croatia sought independence from FRY, that it would no doubt be forced to seek the same liberty, and Bosnia and Herzegovina began the referendum for independence alike. On March 5, 1992, parliament declared independence for Bosnia and Herzegovina, which shook the throne on which FRYs government had been founded, (Ron 2000). It is this timeline of events that outlines the situation in which Bosnia found itself under attack- both from the outside and the inside, including mass rape, killings, torture, oppression and finally the loss of approximately 200.000 lives. It is the identification of these sides which will prove interesting in testing theories of ethnic conflict on the conflict in Bosnia.Ethnic Identity EntrepreneursIn any given conflict there is sure to exist those who somehow find a way to use an existing fear or hate, to pressure or persuade others to feel be or moved to act. Franjo Tuman, of Croatia, and Slobodan Miloevi, of Serbia, entered into discussions which are known as the Karaorevo Agreement, which did just that by claiming rights to parts of Bosnia found on ethnic and demographic lenify (Ron 2000). As mentioned in the history (prior to the outbreak of this conflict) section of this essay, Croatia and Serbia took it upon themselves to divide up Bosnia- favouring ethnic enclaves and creating new republics for which, of course, new influences and/or votes could be easily m anipulated, in the great scheme of gaining more and more land and authority. Populations were made to feel that their ethnic identity was externally threatened, and that there was somehow a need to protect it at any cost- first by separation and posterior through corporal battle. Other leaders, nations, entities, had made their views clear, that they would not interfere in this conflict and that they would also not stand for Bosnia to defend itself, without the forced attempt to sway Bosnia toward surrendering and ending up a help little pawn in the international system, left to be forge or moulded- all the while losing its uniqueness (Kunovich and Hodson 2002). The issue with intervening in this matter, for the join States, and General Colin Powell, in 1992, was the question of deploying ground troops into Bosnia, something that would have held a cost of tens of billions of dollars. That particular point of debate took the panels down another avenue of discussion and of course complicated the situation of helping Bosnia (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). Later, the United States, the European community, and the United Nations, entered into a political huddle in what seemed to last forever. The process took the form of a remarkable policy debate, a discourse in search of rationales, while, in Diego Arrias apt phrase, slow-motion genocide was systematically carried out in Bosnia (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). The Serbs and the Croats had taken action to attempt to pull out of the game with more land, more authority and little opposition, but these actions do not directly target an ethnicity, and do not seem to be completely or even mainly ethnically based tactical decisions. After such a disaster, it was evident that life and surroundings echoed the erasing of certain ethnic qualities, but there was always an ulterior motive present.Bosnia as it had existed for six centuries had to be destroyed the fabric which wove the lives of its some peoples together torn beyond repair the loyalty of its indigenous Serb and Croat communities to a multi-ethnic Bosnian nation subverted its native Muslim population terrorised. The objective was to cleanse Bosnia not only of the Muslims but also of the unique and dangerous cosmopolitanism of its cities which clearly had no place in the new pure nation-states emerging from the ruins of Yugoslavia. A cleansed Bosnia could then be carved up and annexed to the national states of Greater Serbia and Greater Croatia (Lifschultz and Ali 1994).These strategies to place pressures on ethnic grounds, as to influence the crowds, came about from already existing tensions in the communities that later witnessed the true results of what they had been convinced to do, all the while perhaps still not aware of the fact that they were being utilised, that their identity was being used as an instrument to gain their numbers, their voices and their force.Particularity PrejudiceGenocide of this size could not have taken place withou t mass involvement of the common man and abuse of already established institutes/agencies, such as the existing military forces and of course the creation of new forces for the purposes of annihilative anyone that stood in their way. All prior events including agreements and discussions, only prepared the grounds for even worse events to come. Many contemporary theories of ethnic and racial prejudice, ethnic political mobilization, and ethnic conflict emphasize structural conditions that provide a context within which attitudes and behavior toward out-groups develop (Kunovich and Hodson 2002). In this way, it is a bit easier to follow the outcome of the events, and to empathize how in the midst of such chaotic dowry, so many windows to malice are opened. The events that followed ran rampant as pretexts of hatred, diversity and fear guided the masses to direct their uncertainties and reactions to those uncertainties toward all things that seemed to represent the historically recog nised Bosnia that Europe knew.Similar conflicts to the Bosnian War arose within the same time, such as the Rwanda genocide, which provide clear examples of particularity. Rwanda was a nation whose marriage statistics, just as pre-conflict Bosnia, showed a harmonious and culturally accepting coexistence. Upon the arrival of the Belgians to Rwanda, local authority was given in exchange for Tutsi collaboration, overturning many previously governed Hutu districts (Sadowski 1998). These types of interactions promote jealousy and fear in environments where such fears had never been so prevalently manifested. Foreign intervention did not come first in the physical form, but in the form of distant involvement, influencing authority throughout ethnic enclaves in Bosnia, although leaving a like scar, to that of the Rwandan example, in the midst of the conflict. Agreements were reached, regarding or involving these particular enclaves by foreign leaders from afar, who attempted to encourage t he distribution of administrative authority ethnically, as to encumber the nation from sliding into war. This division of Bosnia used the previously existing, or seemingly clear ethnic population divisions that existed in Bosnia in areas where notable enclaves existed, which intended to label administratively as Bosniak, Serb or Croat. Another point of this doing was to decentralise the Bosnian government by giving ethnic groups a sense of authority in their own land. This was done by assigning districts as pertaining to one ethnic group of another, even though random review showed that certain villages could have been up to 70% Bosniak and 30% Serb and yet still designated as a village or district administrated by Serbs or municipally adopted under Republika Srpska- an example of this type of agreement is the Lisbon agreement, which was drawn up by Lord Carrington and Ambassador of Portugal, Jose Cutileiro (Ron 2000). The agreement was signed on March 18, 1992, by the three leader s of the ethnic groups, although Izbetgovic, leader of the Bosniaks, after meeting with the U.S. Ambassador, rabbit warren Zimmerman, quickly withdrew his signature only ten days after having signed it. It is said that Izbetgovics decision to withraw his signature and renounce the agreement was influenced by the United States offer to finally intervene, viewed that he did so immediately after leaving the U.S. embassy on March 28, 1992 (Ron 2000). Even today, Bosnians ask themselves questions as to the interests behind such decisions, and wonder how their ethnicity was able to be so very discretely instrumentalised in the scheme of something that was obviously very multifaceted.One of the most targeted and still the most visibly affected aspects of that once cosmopolitan Bosnia that one recognised, are the elements of diversity that were once revered as the nations richest social resource- its cultural quality, eccentric and obvious traces of history demonstrated throughout the citie s of all Bosnia Herzegovina. The countrys architecture, its buildings, bridges, monuments create by the Ottomans were the most visible, most immediately tangible signs of Bosnias otherness. These became targets of relentless artillery bombardment or straightforward demolition. As if the intent was to destroy all preserve history, libraries housing rare books and priceless manuscripts were deliberately destroyed. Hundreds of delicately designed mosques, large and small, that had stood for centuries unharmed, untouched, disappeared overnight (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). It is in this way that any and all un likely seeming traits of Bosnia were the targets of particularity in the atrocities that took place throughout the cleansing of Bosnia Herzegovina. The particularities and stressors that factored into this conflict, were perhaps greatly influencing reasons for the masses to be shift into motion but they somehow do not come across as a great enough cause given the history prior to this conflict and the strategically devised agreements that led to the need for independence- much less the outbreaks of violence that followed.Theories of Ethnic ConflictWhen given a vast amount of information about a conflict, you use a sphere by which you measure the elements and the gravity, logic or even reality of the events occurred. As mentioned before the tool by which we are measuring up the events of the Bosnian Conflict, are theories of ethnic conflict. These theories provide limits and start points for possible patterns to describe a conflict of this genre and are ever growing in that they descend from fruitful tests of hypotheses that have branched from detailed research. There are two sides or clusters, if you will that theories of ethnic conflict provide us with, for views on analysis of this type of conflict the primordialist and the instrumentalist take on things. The primordialist stance rests on explicitly attributing the cause for the events that took place as a history of ancient hatreds and prejudice. Instrumentalists negate that the direct cause of these types of conflicts could be a clear-cut question of primordial abhorrence (Blimes 2006). These paths help refine a thin line of sight for analysing this type of affair, facts and deeds fight myth and hearsay- in fact, instrumentalist refuse to accept that this could be the direct cause of antipathies. Instrumentalists point out that in many instances, ethnic groups with a history of animosity have managed to live in peace and therefore reject the ancient hatreds argument. After all, interethnic cooperation is the norm rather than the aberration between ethnic groups. Instrumentalists argue that ethnicity is however a tool that an individual or group uses to achieve an end (Blimes 2006). Scholars have begun combining theories of ethnic conflicts with theories of civil war, in an attempt to view if either incites a greater probability in the other. The analysis proves interesting althou gh no concrete results were extracted through any empirically tested models. Through the mentioned research, there were no greatly solidified demonstrations that ethnic fractionalisation contributed directly to the onsite of civil war. Other scholars, not related to that particular study, conclude similarly that the link between ethnicity and civil war are relatively evident but, as of now, in no finitely tested way conclusive. The Bosnian war arose out of a familiar set of circumstances the wear of totalitarian control of territory producing a political void that, in turn, exposes a deep-rooted rivalry between ethnic groups leading to a compete for control of territory ending in an attempt at violent resolution. Central to the process are the notoriously ambiguous concepts of ethnicity and nationalism (Doyon and slop 2001). While opinions may differ, much research shares a relatively similar conclusion in that the roles of ethnicity and civil war are greatly influencing factors in terms of general dispute, and it is through the evaluation of analysis in these two theories that this essay has attempted to clarify the labelling of the conflict in Bosnia in the 1990s.AnalysisEthnicity is definitely a recurring theme in this conflict, and very rightfully so. Some academics, such as Jovanka Stojsavljevic, would say that the war in the Former Yugoslavian Republic was merely an opportunity- that old guard communists took advantage of a vulnerable moment in FRYs history to use the ideology of nationalism as their own personal tag end to increased power (1995). The important fact to remember when dealing with this type of immediate reaction, is to remember that with such a great deal of input to process, and more than enough on both sides of the scale (both supporting and negating), there is not one single response and when there is perhaps a combined answer, even that is difficult to clearly devise into a black or white response. The Bosnian war arose out of a fa miliar set of circumstances the collapse of totalitarian control of territory producing a political void that, in turn, exposes a deep-rooted rivalry between ethnic groups leading to a struggle for control of territory ending in an attempt at violent resolution. Central to the process are the notoriously ambiguous concepts of ethnicity and nationalism (Doyon and Slack 2001). This conflict demonstrates a great deal of multidimensionality and it is clear that such a trait must be taken into consideration when attempting to trace a fault or pin blame. Stojsavljevics conclusion of these events gets directly to the point and immediately cancels out ethnicity as a cause for the war. The one thing it does not do is seek to aim the role of ethnicity in the controversy or to quantify ethnicity as an influence. To do so, it is important to realise the situation that Bosnia Herzegovina was in at the time. With the decentralization of political power following Titos death and trends toward de mocratization within republics, political leaders on all sides mobilized ethnic enclaves for political gain. Once small-scale conflicts began to develop in these ethnic enclaves, fear spread rapidly, and the mobilization of individuals in more tolerant regions became possible. Thus, regional differences in ethnic prejudice provided a foundation for the emergence and spread of ethnic conflict (Kunovich and Hodson 2002). Misdistribution of power, bad leadership, a lack of checks and balances system and utter greed brought upon by fears for loss of fortune, authority, as well as future livelihood became decision making factors and the people who were not among the few in power, were significant liabilities that needed to be made to cooperate quickly.The decision in Bosnia and Herzegovina to seek independence was one that Serbian leaders anticipated and feared. It is that fear that incited a chain reaction of domestic and international obstacles to aid that would later end in ethnic cl eansing, genocide and an capacious infraction on human rights. The length, in time, that these obstacles stalled the international community from intervening, would serve as the lifeline for the atrocities that took place. The more divided the nation became the easier it became to instrumentalise historical accounts and diversity as weapons to fan the flames of fear. Many claim that the simple fact that Bosnia and Herzegovina was so ethnically fractionalised directly affected the probability for the onset of conflict and that it made for a likely place for civil war. Scholars, such as Blimes, would respond that empirical assessment of any such hypothesis, that the very existence of ethnic fractionalisation could directly, much less greatly affect the inception of civil war has not turned out any unassailable conclusions (2006). To attribute ethnic cleansing, genocide, and mass violence to ethnic fractionalisation, or even ethnicity alone, would mean that everything that took place from the late 1980s to 1995 to build up to this conflict somehow all stems from ancient hatreds or that sooner or later all nations where ethnic fractionalisation exists will have a similar fate. This way of thinking suits a primordialist view in the sphere of theories of ethnic conflict. Blimes goes into detail by mentioning that primordialists consider ancient hatreds to be the direct root of these ethnic issues, while instrumentalists view that an explanation or blame on ancient hatreds quite normally oversimplifies conflicts that are really much deeper than can be simply explained by timeless rancour (2006). The worst genocides of modem times have not been targeted along in the beginning ethnic lines. Rather, the genocides within Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, the Soviet Union, and even, to a great extent, Indonesia and Uganda, have focused on liquidating political dissidents to employ the emerging vocabulary, they were politicides rather than ethnicides. Indeed, the largest gen ocides of this century were clearly ideologically driven politicides (Sadowski 1998). This and many similar conflicts are simply much too multifaceted to ascribe all responsibility to one factor or to cast off the existence of other very evident agents.ConclusionAs one refines the scope of analysis a bit, it becomes more and more apparent that in order to strongly support whether or not this conflict can be looked at solely as an ethnic conflict, indeed lies in isolating and identifying the function of ethnicity and/or ethnic diversity as factors. Of the two clusters mentioned in theories of ethnic conflict, it seems an instrumentalist view is more efficient in meticulously combing through this tumultuous history with a fine toothed comb. This does not indicate that ancient hatreds did not or do not exist or that a primordialist viewpoint is completely erroneous- only that it does not convincingly represent the foundation of motive behind years of strategically planned moves that i n turn yielded even more power and riches to those making the decisions (which were not those of the targeted ethnic groups). Ethnicity and ethnic diversity do not compellingly embody a basis for ethnic cleansing, genocide or mass violence. Rather, ethnic diversity serves as natural fault lines on which a society, subjected to other variables that have a direct influence on the likelihood of civil war onset, can fracture or act as a solution to collective action problems that might otherwise prevent a cohesive rebellion from forming (Blimes 2006). While it is true that ethnicity and ethnic diversity are both pervasive in the sphere of this conflict, this essay finds that the Bosnian Conflict cannot justly be labelled and viewed solely as an ethnic conflict.

Metrics and Models in Software Testing

Metrics and Models in Softw be TestingHow do we measure the progress of hear? When do we carrier bag the softw atomic number 18 system? Why do we devote much(prenominal) than than clock cadence and re book of factss for psychometric demonstrateing a particular module? What is the dependableness of softw ar at the condemnation of release? Who is responsible for the selection of a poor exam suite? How galore(postnominal) an(prenominal) duty periods do we expect during interrogationing? How oft beat and resources ar inevitable to test a software? How do we know the potentness of test suite? We whitethorn keep on framing such questions without much effort? However, finding answers to such questions are non easy and whitethorn require star significant standard of effort. computer software scrutiny poetic rhythm whitethorn befriend us to measure and quantify m each things which may find some answers to such important questions.10.1 Software MetricsWhat cannot be measured, cannot be controlled is a creation in this world. If we want to control something we should first be able to measure it. Therefore, everything should be measurable. If a thing is not measurable, we should make an effort to make it measurable. The sweep of measurement is very important in every field and we have mature and establish prosody to quantify various things. However, in software approach pattern this area of measurement is still in its developing stage and may require significant effort to make it mature, scientific and effective.10.1.1 Measure, Measurement and MetricsThese scathe are often use of goods and servicesd interchangeably. However, we should understand the difference amongst these terms. Pressman explained this clearly as PRES05A measure provides a quantitative indication of the extent, amount, dimension, capacity or size of some attributes of a merchandise or swear out. Measurement is the act of determining a measure. The metric is a quantitative measure of the degree to which a product or process possesses a disposed(p) attribute. For example, a measure is the lean of chastenings see during testing. Measurement is the way of recording such disasters. A software metric may be average cast of trials undergo per hour during testing.Fenton FENT04 has delimitate measurement asIt is the process by which numbers or symbols are assigned to attributes of entities in the real world in such a way as to describe them according to clearly defined rules.The sanctioned issue is that we want to measure every attribute of an entity. We should have established prosody to do so. However, we are in the process of developing metrics for some attributes of various entities apply in software engineering.Software metrics can be defined as GOOD93 The continuous application of measurement establish techniques to the software development process and its products to supply consequenceful and cartridge cliply management lear ning, together with the use of those techniques to improve that process and its products.M any things are covered in this definition. Software metrics are related to measures which, in turn, involve numbers for quantification, these numbers are use to produce mitigate product and improve its related process. We may like to measure feeling attributes such as testability, complexity, reliability, maintainability, capability, portability, enhanceability, usability etc.for a software. We may also like to measure size, effort, development prison term and resources for a software.10.1.2 ApplicationsSoftware metrics are applicable in in all phases of software development life cycle. In software requirements and analysis phase, where output is the SRS document, we may have to estimate the cost, manpower requirement and development condemnation for the software. The client may like to know cost of the software and development metre before signing the contract. As we all know, the S RS document acts as a contract among customer and developer. The readability and metier of SRS document may assistant to increase the confidence level of the customer and may provide better compriseations for designing the product. Some metrics are available for cost and size estimation like COCOMO, Putnam resource allocation imitate, get point estimation model etc. Some metrics are also available for the SRS document like number of mistakes found during verification, change put across frequency, readability etc. In the design phase, we may like to measure stability of a design, coupling amongst modules, cohesion of a module etc. We may also like to measure the amount of data input to a software, processed by the software and also produced by the software. A count of the amount of data input to, processed in, and output from software is called a data structure metric. Many such metrics are available like number of variables, number of operators, number of operands, number of live variables, variable spans, module weakness etc. Some information flow metrics are also hot like FANIN, FAN OUT etc. wasting disease cases may also be employ to design metrics like counting actors, counting use cases, counting number of links etc. Some metrics may also be designed for various applications of weathervanesites like number of static web pages, number of dynamic web pages, number of internal page links, word count, number of static and dynamic content objects, time taken to search a web page and retrieve the desired information, similarity of web pages etc. Software metrics have number of applications during implementation phase and after the utmost of such a phase. Halstead software size measures are applicable after coding like token count, program length, program volume, program level, difficulty, estimation of time and effort, language level etc. Some complexity measures are also popular like cyclomatic complexity, knot count, feature count etc. Software met rics have found good number of applications during testing. One area is the reliability estimation where popular models are Musas basic exertion time model and logarithmic Poisson execution time model. Jelinski Moranda model JELI72 is also used for the calculation of reliability. Source recruit coverage metrics are available that opine the percentage of source code covered during testing. Test suite effectiveness may also be measured. take of failures experienced per unit of time, number of paths, number of independent paths, number of du paths, percentage of statement coverage, percentage of branch condition covered are also useful software metrics. Maintenance phase may have many metrics like number of pauses reported per year, number of requests for changes per year, percentage of source code modified per year, percentage of obsolete source code per year etc.We may find number of applications of software metrics in every phase of software development life cycle. They provide meaningful and timely information which may wait on us to take corrective actions as and when required. Effective implementation of metrics may improve the grapheme of software and may help us to deliver the software in time and within budget.10.2 Categories of MetricsThere are two broad categories of software metrics namely product metrics and process metrics. Product metrics describe the characteristics of the product such as size, complexity, design features, performance, efficiency, reliability, portability, etc. Process metrics describe the effectiveness and quality of the processes that produce the software product. Examples are effort required in the process, time to produce the product, effectiveness of defect removal during development, number of defects found during testing, maturity of the process AGGA08.10.2.1 Product metrics for testingThese metrics provide information about the testing status of a software product. The data for such metrics are also generated during testing and may help us to know the quality of the product. Some of the basic metrics are effrontery as(i) turning of failures experienced in a time interval(ii) conviction interval between failures(iii) cumulative failures experienced upto a specified time(iv) m of failure(v) Estimated time for testing(vi) Actual testing timeWith these basic metrics, we may find some additional metrics as minded(p) below(i)(ii) Average time interval between failures(iii) Maximum and minimum failures experienced in any time interval(iv) Average number of failures experienced in time intervals(v) Time remaining to complete the testing.We may design similar metrics to find the indications about the quality of the product.10.2.2 Process metrics for testingThese metrics are actual to monitor the progress of testing, status of design and development of test cases and outcome of test cases after execution.Some of the basic process metrics are inclined below(i) Number of test cases designed(ii) Nu mber of test cases executed(iii) Number of test cases passed(iv) Number of test cases failed(v) Test case execution time(vi) Total execution time(vii) Time spent for the development of a test case(viii) Total time spent for the development of all test casesOn the basis of above direct measures, we may design following additional metrics which may convert the base metric data into more(prenominal) useful information.(i) % of test cases executed(ii) % of test cases passed(iii) % of test cases failed(iv) Total actual execution time / total estimated execution time(v) Average execution time of a test caseThese metrics, although simple, may help us to know the progress of testing and may provide meaningful information to the testers and project manager.An effective test plan may force us to capture data and convert it into useful metrics for process and product both. This document also guides the arranging for future projects and may also suggest changes in the existing processes in or der to produce a good quality maintainable software product.10.3 fair game Oriented Metrics used in TestingObject oriented metrics capture many attributes of a software and some of them are germane(predicate) in testing. Measuring structural design attributes of a software system, such as coupling, cohesion or complexity, is a promising approach towards early quality assessments. There are several metrics available in the literature to capture the quality of design and source code.10.3.1 Coupling MetricsCoupling traffic increase complexity, reduce encapsulation, potential reuse, and limit understanding and maintainability. The coupling metrics requires information about attribute usage and method invocations of former(a) crystalisees. These metrics are disposed in table 10.1. Higher abide bys of coupling metrics indicate that a kinsfolk under test testament require more number of stubs during testing. In addition, each interface will require to be tested thoroughly.MetricDef initionSourceCoupling between Objects. (CBO)CBO for a class is count of the number of other classes to which it is coupled.CHID94Data Abstraction Coupling (DAC)Data Abstraction is a technique of creating new data types suited for an application to be programmed.DAC = number of ADTs defined in a class.LI93Message Passing Coupling. (MPC)It counts the number of send statements defined in a class.Response for a Class (RFC)It is defined as set of methods that can be potentially executed in response to a message received by an object of that class. It is given byRFC=RS, where RS, the response set of the class, is given byCHID94Information flow-based coupling (ICP)The number of methods invoked in a class, weighted by the number of parameters of the methods invoked.LEE95Information flow-based inheritance coupling. (IHICP) corresponding as ICP, but only counts methods invocations of ancestors of classes.Information flow-based non-inheritance coupling (NIHICP)Same as ICP, but only counts meth ods invocations of classes not related through inheritance.Fan-inCount of modules (classes) that call a given class, plus the number of global data elements.BINK98Fan-outCount of modules (classes) called by a given module plus the number of global data elements adapted by the module (class).BINK98 tabular array 10.1 Coupling Metrics10.3.3 Inheritance MetricsInheritance metrics requires information about ancestors and descendants of a class. They also pull information about methods overridden, inherited and added (i.e. neither inherited nor overrided). These metrics are summarized in table 10.3. If a class has more number of children (or sub classes), more amount of testing may be required in testing the methods of that class. More is the depth of inheritance tree, more complex is the design as more number of methods and classes are involved. Thus, we may test all the inherited methods of a class and testing effort well increase accordingly.MetricDefinitionSourcesNumber of Children (NOC)The NOC is the number of immediate subclasses of a class in a power structure.CHID94Depth of Inheritance Tree (DIT)The depth of a class within the inheritance hierarchy is the maximum number of steps from the class node to the root of the tree and is measured by the number of ancestor classes.Number of Parents (NOP)The number of classes that a class directly inherits from (i.e. multiple inheritance).LORE94Number of Descendants (NOD)The number of subclasses (both direct and indirectly inherited) of a class.Number of Ancestors (NOA)The number of superclasses (both direct and indirectly inherited) of a class.TEGA92Number of Methods Overridden (NMO)When a method in a subclass has the same name and type signature as in its superclass, then the method in the superclass is said to be overridden by the method in the subclass.LORE94Number of Methods Inherited (NMI)The number of methods that a class inherits from its super (ancestor) class.Number of Methods Added (NMA)The number of new m ethods added in a class (neither inherited, nor overriding).Table 10.3 Inheritance Metrics10.3.4 Size MetricsSize metrics indicate the length of a class in terms of lines of source code and methods used in the class. These metrics are given in table 10.4. If a class has more number of methods with greater complexity, then more number of test cases will be required to test that class. When a class with more number of methods with greater complexity is inherited, it will require more rigorous testing. Similarly, a class with more number of public methods will require thorough testing of public methods as they may be used by other classes.MetricDefinitionSourcesNumber of Attributes per Class (NA)It counts the total number of attributes defined in a class.Number of Methods per Class (NM)It counts number of methods defined in a class.Weighted Methods per Class (WMC)The WMC is a count of sum of complexities of all methods in a class. Consider a class K1, with methods M1,.. Mn that are def ined in the class. Let C1,.Cn be the complexity of the methods.CHID94Number of public methods (PM)It counts number of public methods defined in a class.Number of non-public methods (NPM)It counts number of private methods defined in a class.Lines Of Code (LOC)It counts the lines in the source code. Table 10.4 Size Metrics10.4 What should we measure during testing?We should measure every thing (if possible) which we want to control and which may help us to find answers to the questions given in the beginning of this chapter. Test metrics may help us to measure the current performance of any project. The collected data may become historical data for future projects. This data is very important because in the absence of historical data, all estimates are just the guesses. Hence, it is essential to record the key information about the current projects. Test metrics may become an important indicator of the effectiveness and efficiency of a software testing process and may also identify r isky areas that may need more testing.10.4.1 TimeWe may measure many things during testing with respect to time and some of them are given as1) Time required to run a test case.2) Total time required to run a test suite.3) Time available for testing4) Time interval between failures5) Cumulative failures experienced upto a given time6) Time of failure7) Failures experienced in a time intervalA test case requires some time for its execution. A measurement of this time may help to estimate the total time required to execute a test suite. This is the simplest metric and may estimate the testing effort. We may calculate the time available for testing at any point in time during testing, if we know the total allotted time for testing. Generally unit of time is seconds, transactions or hours, per test case. Total testing time may be defined in terms of hours. Time needed to execute a mean test suite may also be defined in terms of hours.When we test a software, we experience failures. Th ese failures may be recorded in different ways like time of failure, time interval between failures, cumulative failures experienced upto given time and failures experienced in a time interval. Consider the table 10.5 and table 10.6 where time based failure specification and failure based failure specification are givenSr. zero(prenominal) of failure occurrencesFailure time measured in minutesFailure intervals in minutes1121222614335094380355012670207106368125199155301020045Table 10.5 Time based failure specificationTime in minutesCumulative failuresFailures in interval of 20 minutes200101400403600501800601100060012007011400801160090118009002001001Table 10.6 Failure based failure specificationThese two tables give us the idea about failure pattern and may help us to define the following1) Time taken to experience n failures2) Number of failures in a particular time interval3) Total number of failures experienced after a specified time4) Maximum / minimum number of failures experien ced in any regular time interval.10.4.2 Quality of source codeWe may know the quality of the delivered source code after reasonable time of release using the following formulaWhere WDB Number of weighted defects found before releaseWDA Number of weighted defects found after releaseThe weight for each defect is defined on the basis of defect validity and removal cost. A severity is assigned to each defect by testers based on how important or serious is the defect. A lower shelter of this metric indicates the less number of error detection or less serious error detection.We may also calculate the number of defects per execution test case. This may also be used as an indicator of source code quality as the source code progressed through the series of test activities STEP03.10.4.3 Source Code CoverageWe may like to execute every statement of a program at least once before its release to the customer. Hence, percentage of source code coverage may be calculated asThe higher value of thi s metric given confidence about the effectiveness of a test suite. We should write additional test cases to cover the uncovered portions of the source code.10.4.4 Test Case Defect DensityThis metric may help us to know the efficiency and effectiveness of our test cases.Where Failed test case A test case that when executed, produced an undesired output.Passed test case A test case that when executed, produced a desired outputHigher value of this metric indicates that the test cases are effective and efficient because they are able to detect more number of defects.10.4.5 Review EfficiencyReview efficiency is a metric that gives insight on the quality of review process carried out during verification.Higher the value of this metric, better is the review efficiency.10.5 Software Quality Attributes Prediction ModelsSoftware quality is dependent on many attributes like reliability, maintainability, fault proneness, testability, complexity, etc. Number of models are available for the predi ction of one or more such attributes of quality. These models are especially beneficial for large-scale systems, where testing experts need to focus their attention and resources to riddle areas in the system under development.10.5.1 Reliability ModelsMany reliability models for software are available where emphasis is on failures rather than faults. We experience failures during execution of any program. A fault in the program may lead to failure(s) depending upon the input(s) given to a program with the purpose of executing it. Hence, time of failure and time between failures may help us to find reliability of software. As we all know, software reliability is the probability of failure free operation of software in a given time under specified conditions. Generally, we consider the calendar time. We may like to know the probability that a given software will not fail in one month time or one week time and so on. However, most of the available models are based on execution time. T he execution time is the time for which the computer actually executes the program. Reliability models based on execution time normally give better results than those based on calendar time. In many cases, we have a mapping table that converts execution time to calendar time for the purpose of reliability studies. In order to differentiate both the timings, execution time is re leaveed byand calendar time by t.Most of the reliability models are applicable at system testing level. Whenever software fails, we note the time of failure and also try to locate and correct the fault that caused the failure. During system testing, software may not fail at regular intervals and may also not follow a particular pattern. The variation in time between successive failures may be described in terms of following gets () average number of failures upto time () average number of failures per unit time at time and is know as failure colour function.It is expected that the reliability of a program increases due to fault detection and correction over time and hence the failure enduringness decreases accordingly.(i) Basic Execution Time ModelThis is one of the popular model of software reliability assessment and was developed by J.D. MUSA MUSA79 in 1979. As the name indicates, it is based on execution time (). The basic assumption is that failures may occur according to a non-homogeneous poisson process (NHPP) during testing. Many examples may be given for real world events where poisson processes are used. Few examples are given as* Number of users using a website in a given period of time.* Number of persons requesting for railway tickets in a given period of time* Number of e-mails expected in a given period of time.The failures during testing re takes a non-homogeneous process, and failure chroma decreases as a function of time. J.D. Musa assumed that the decrease in failure fervor as a function of the number of failures observed, is constant and is given asWhere Initi al failure intensity at the start of testing. Total number of failures experienced upto infinite time Number of failures experienced upto a given point in time.Musa MUSA79 has also given the race between failure intensity () and the mean failures experienced () and is given in 10.1.If we take the first derivative of compare given above, we get the cant over of the failure intensity as given belowThe negative sign shows that there is a negative slope indicating a decrementing trend in failure intensity.This model also assumes a uniform failure pattern meaning thereby equal probability of failures due to various faults. The relationship between execution time () and mean failures experienced () is given in 10.2The derivation of the relationship of 10.2 may be obtained asThe failure intensity as a function of time is given in 10.3.This relationship is useful for calculating present failure intensity at any given value of execution time. We may find this relationshipTwo additional eq uations are given to calculate additional failures required to be experienced to reach a failure intensity objective (F) and additional time required to reach the objective. These equations are given as Where Expected number of additional failures to be experienced to reach failure intensity objective. Additional time required to reach the failure intensity objective. Present failure intensity Failure intensity objective. and are very interesting metrics to know the additional time and additional failures required to make a failure intensity objective.Example 10.1 A program will experience 100 failures in infinite time. It has now experienced 50 failures. The sign failure intensity is 10 failures/hour. Use the basic execution time model for the following(i) Find the present failure intensity.(ii) Calculate the decrement of failure intensity per failure.(iii) Determine the failure experienced and failure intensity after 10 and 50 hours of execution.(iv) Find the additional failure s and additional execution time needed to reach the failure intensity objective of 2 failures/hour.Solution(a) Present failure intensity can be calculated using the following equation(b) Decrement of failure intensity per failure can be calculated using the following(c) Failures experienced and failure intensity after 10 and 50 hours of execution can be calculated as(i) After 10 hours of execution(ii) After 50 hours of execution(d) and with failure intensity objective of 2 failures/hour(ii) Logarithmic Poisson Execution time modelWith a slight modification in the failure intensity function, Musa presented logarithmic poisson execution time model. The failure intensity function is given asWhere Failure intensity decay parameter which represents the relative change of failure intensity per failure experienced.The slope of failure intensity is given asThe expected number of failures for this model is always infinite at infinite time. The relation for mean failures experienced is given asThe expression for failure intensity with respect to time is given asThe relationship for additional number of failures and additional execution time are given asWhen execution time is more, the logarithmic poisson model may give large values of failure intensity than the basic model.Example 10.2 The initial failure intensity of a program is 10 failures/hour. The program has experienced 50 failures. The failure intensity decay parameter is 0.01/failure. Use the logarithmic poisson execution time model for the following(a) Find present failure intensity.(b) Calculate the decrement of failure intensity per failure.(c) Determine the failure experienced and failure intensity after 10 and 50 hours of execution.(d) Find the additional failures and additional and failure execution time needed to reach the failure intensity objective of 2 failures/hour.Solution(a) Present failure intensity can be calculated as= 50 failures= 50 failures= 0.01/faluresHence= 6.06 failures/hour(b) Decrement of failure intensity per failure can be calculated as(c) Failure experienced and failure intensity after 10 and 50 hours of execution can be calculated as(i) After 10 hours of execution(ii) After 50 hours of execution(d) and with failure intensity objective of 2 failures/hour(iii) The Jelinski Moranda ModelThe Jelinski Moranda model JELI72 is the earliest and simples software reliability model. It proposed a failure intensity function in the form ofWhere = unbroken of proportionalityN = total number of errors presenti = number of errors found by time interval ti.This model assumes that all failures have the same failure rate. It means that failure rate is a step function and there will be an improvement in reliability after fixing an error. Hence, every failure contributes equally to the overall reliability. Here, failure intensity is directly proportional to the number of errors remaining in a software.Once we know the value of failure intensity function using any reliability mo del, we may calculate reliability using the equation given belowWhere is the failure intensity and t is the operating time. Lower the failure intensity and higher is the reliability and vice versa.Example 10.3 A program may experience 200 failures in infinite time of testing. It has experienced 100 failures. Use Jelinski-Moranda model to calculate failure intensity after the experience of 150 failures?SolutionTotal expected number of failures (N) = 200Failures experienced (i) =100Constant of proportionality () = 0.02We know= 2.02 failures/hourAfter 150 failures= 0.02 (200-150+1)=1.02 failures/hourFailure intensity will decrease with every additional failure experience.10.5.2 An example of fault prediction model in practiceIt is clear that software metrics can be used to capture the quality of object oriented design and code. These metrics provide ways to evaluate the quality of software and their use in earlier phases of software development can help organizations in assessing a la rge software development quickly, at a low cost.To achieve help for planning and executing testing by focusing resources on the fault prone parts of the design and code, the model used to predict faulty classes should be used. The fault prediction model can also be used to identify classes that are prone to have severe faults. One can use this model with respect to high severity of faults to focus the testing on those parts of the system that are likely to cause serious failures. In this section, we describe models used to find relationship between object oriented metrics and fault proneness, and how such models can be of great help in planning and executing testing activities MALH09, SING10.In order to perform the analysis we used public domain KC1 NASA data set NASA04 The data set is available on www.mdp.ivv.nasa.gov. The 145

Great People :: miscellaneous

Great PeopleOnly gigantic men argon marked with great faults. This quotation from Maxims was written by La Rochefoucauld. He states that people with nobility of their minds create many mis defends throughout their lives. This quotation is only part correct, people do indeed have faults but it is these faults that restrict them from be great. Every person has done unpleasant acts that disassociate them from being a great person. Each day, people break societys norms or rules and most feel they have done nothing wrong. A man who has sex with the under aged missy has a justification for his actions. He tells himself that she knew what she was getting into even though he did actually rape her. Just as a man with his wifes blood on his hands justifies that she deserved her punishment for not following his rules. Everyone breaks some form of laws through out the day. People who do not percolate themselves as criminals break laws, for instance the average speeder or traffic light runne r. These people are in a hurry and do not want the hassle of stopping or slowing down instead they go on and have an accident. Each person has their own way of justifying their actions. more or less people blame someone else for their own actions because to them they did nothing wrong. While others compare their actions to the actions of others who did a deed far worse than theirs. With this constant justification of our negative traits peoples views of macrocosm begin to become distorted and lost. With distortion of reality the whole society begins to shift into a greatless nation of sinners. Some people who are thought of being great discover inventions that injure or take others lives. For example Albert Einstein, he was the discoverer of atomic energy. This energy has been used to devastate entire cities and kill uncountable numbers game of people. Atomic energy emits a massive amount of radiation that pollutes our air, water, and land leaving large areas inaccessible for yea rs to come. Is this the work of a great individual(a)? No, a great person would not create something that would be this destructive. Albert Einstein obviously did not know the full extent of his discovery. He did not take the time to completely research all the possibilities and consequences that came with his findings. So in other words the human race is still paying for his mistakes.

Berkeley :: essays research papers

BerkeleyAs man progressed through the various stages of evolution, it is assumed that ata certain point he began to ponder the creative activity around him. Of course, these firstattempts fell short of being scholarly, probably consisting of a few grunts andsnorts at best. As time passed on, though, these ideas persisted and wereeventually tackled by the more intellectual, supposed philosophers. Thus,excavation of "the external homo" began. As the authoritarinism of the ancientsgave way to the more liberal views of the modernists, two principal(prenominal) powersconcerning epistemology and the nature of the world arose. The first view wasexemplified by the empiricists, who verbalize that all knowledge comes from thesenses. In opposition, the rationalists maintained that knowledge comes purelyfrom deduction, and that this knowledge is processed by certain innate schema inthe mind. Those that belonged to the empiricist school of thought process developedquite separate a nd distinct ideas concerning the nature of the substratum ofsensible objects. John Locke and David Hume upheld the belief that sensiblethings were composed of material substance, the basic framework for thematerialist position. The main figure who believed that material substance didnot exist is George Berkeley. In truth, it is the immaterialist position thatseems the most logical when placed under close scrutiny.The initial groundwork for Berkeleys position is the truism that thematerialist is a skeptic. In the writing of his three dialogues, Berkeleydevelops two characters Hylas (the materialist) and Philonous (Berkeleyhimself). Philonous draws upon one central supposition of the materialist toformulate his argument of skepticism against him this idea is that one sessnever perceive the real essence of anything. In short, the materialist feelsthat the information received through sense experience gives a representativepicture of the outside world (the representative theory of perc eption), and onecan not penetrate to the true up essece of an object. This makes logical sense, forthe only way to perceive this real essence would be to survive the object itselfAlthough the idea is logical, it does contain a certain grounding foragnosticism. Let the reader consider this if there is no way to actually sensethe true material essence of anything, and all knowledge in empiricism comesfrom the senses, then the real material essence can not be perceived and thereof it can not be posited. This deserves careful consideration, for thematerialist has been self-proclaimed a skeptic If the believer in this theorywere asked if a mythical beast such as a cyclops existed he would most certainlysay no. As part of his reply he might add that because it can not be sensed it