Child and young person development Essay

1.2 Describe with example how different aspects of development can affect one another. When it comes to different aspects of development there are many examples that can describe how it effects one another, these are as follows: If a child is less developed in reading, when it comes to children having reading time on the carpet in groups, they may feel uncomfortable and unable to form friendships due to embarrassment and low self esteem. This will then affect their language and social development. This can cause the child to feel lonely and angry at themselves because they are not at the other children’s level of learning. If a child doesn’t like to share toys, this can cause a problem with social interaction as they will find it hard to  form friendships. The other children will try to avoid the child that is unable to share, this can affect the emotional and social development of the child who is unwilling to share as they will feel lonely and neglected and even aba ndoned. If a child is overweight and obese he will struggle to do PE at school as he won’t have the energy and will get tired very quickly. This can cause his classmates to be annoyed with him for delaying the class due to his weight and they will bully him for it. This would leave the child feeling very hurt, embarrassed and he will lose his confidence and self-esteem. This will then effect his physical, social and emotional development. If a child is use to having his way all the time, such as him eating his lunch whilst watching TV, when the child is at nursery and boundaries are in place this will cause the child to have temper tantrums and become angry. This will affect his social, emotional and behaviour development. As he will not understand why at home he can watch TV and eat on the sofa, but at nursery he has to sit with the other children at the table and eat. This will make him feel very upset and frustrated as he is unable to understand the reasons behind it. 2.1 Describe with examples the kinds of influences that affect children and young people’s development including: background, health and environment. Background Children will be part of different ethnic backgrounds, cultures, environments and circumstances; with their families going through different changes school may not be aware of it. Deprivation and poverty can effect pupil’s development, statistics show that children who come from deprived backgrounds are less likely to achieve well in school as parents find it difficult to manage their needs. Some children may come from a home schooling environment so when they start a new school it will be difficult for them to adapt to different teaching methods so they will need additional support. Health Development opportunities can be restricted if a child suffers from poor health or disability. For example, a child who has a disability may be less able to engage in some activates during school. This can affect their physical development but may also restrict their social communication, for  example, on the playground. When a child is aware of their needs it can affect them emotionally. It’s important that children are supported to ensure they are included in as much as possible. Environment The different environment and circumstances that pupils are exposed to at school and during their childhood and teens can affect their development. Many families may go through changes, which will have an impact on the way children respond in different situations. Families may break-up, get divorced or a new partner may be introduced which may effect children emotionally. Families may move house or change country, which can affect individuals socially, there could be a bereavement or illness in the family, which can be traumatic and upsetting for the whole family. If a child is looked after or in care it can effect their development emotionally, socially and physically. 2.2 Describe with examples the importance of recognizing and responding to concerns about children and young people’s development. The following things would cause concern about a child or young person’s development. If the problem was left untreated then things could get worse, and a delay in treatment could mean that the outcome is not as good as it would have been if treatment was started earlier. Speech / Language. If a child or young person does not talk to anyone or even only speaks a few words compared to others, this may cause concern. This would socially affect the child or young person’s because they would find it hard to make friends, work in groups or even interact with adults. It would also affect their communicational development because they would find it hard to speak to people and also may find it hard to listen to instructions etc. Early intervention would be the best way to respond to this concern, the first step would be to have the child or young person’s hearing checked because if they have poor hearing they will find it hard to hear people so will not want to communicate with others in case they get something wrong. Poor reading and writing. If a child or young person has difficulties with their reading and writing it  may cause concern, but this may not be noticeable until the child is around the age of 6 or 7 because by this age they should have learnt how letters are formed and start to string words together. These are the main skills a child needs to help them develop in all areas. Due to poor reading and writing the child or young person will start to fall behind his peers of the same age. They may find it difficult to interact or make friends with others who are more advanced than them, in case they are bullied etc. They would struggle with their intellectual development not only with the reading and writing, but they would struggle with their memory and even their concentration. 3.3.1. Identify the transitions experienced by most children and young people’s. Most children may experience transitions; transitions can be long term or short term. Some transitions that most children may experience are likely to be, starting school or changing from one school to another. Some families may move house several times throughout their lives this can affect a child in that they have to try and make new friends and get use to the area in which they will be living. Children and young people have to make very many of their transitions without prior personal experience, and it can sometimes appear to them as a daunting list of ‘firsts’: first day at school; first exam; first sexual experience. Most of these changes are navigated well by most children and young people, as and when they are ready. The experience they gain and the skills they learn in the process equip them to deal with the challenges of life ahead. The diverse range of transitions faced by children and young people includes: starting or moving school, puberty, bereavement, parents splitting up, illness (their own or a parent’s or sibling’s),changing friendship groups, entry to, or leaving, a pupil referral unit, moving through child health services into adult services, coming out as gay or lesbian this this affects older children, leaving home. Young people and children will need help and support from peers and adults to successfully make the transition to the next stage in their life. The nature and timing and giver of the support will vary depending on the individual’s needs and circumstances. Transition experienced by most children and young people include: Moving away – This could make the child or young person frustrated because they are being torn away from  either their favourite place or friends, this could also make the child become anxious. Friends moving away – This could make the child or young person feel nervous because they will then have to make new friends which may not be easy for the child, this could also make the child become anxious and become shy. Puberty – This could make the child or young person feel confused because they cant control what is happening to them, this could also make the child become dismissive or make the child become argumentative with parents or carers. Starting a new school – This could make the child or young person feel nervous because they have to make new friends and could make the child feel anxious because they don’t know what will happen. This could also make the child become shy or dism issive or even anxious. 3.3.2. Identify transitions that only some children and young people may experience e.g. bereavement. Transitions experienced by only some children and young people include: Diagnosis of a disability – This could make the child or young person feel jealousy because he/she may feel different, this could also make the child act unusual such as being dismissive. Divorce – This could make the child or young person feel frustrated, confused because the child or young person may not be seeing one parent as much as before, this could also make the child act unusual such as becoming withdrawn and being argumentative with parents. New siblings – This could make the child or young person feel jealous because he/she may not be getting as much attention as before, this also make the child act unusual such as becoming dismissive . New step parent – This could make the child or young person feel jealous because he/she may not get as much attention as before. Sometimes this can bring huge positive changes.It can impart the child’s life in a good way. Bereavement-the death of a close friend or relative may be very traumatic for a child, when it comes to times of change and transitions you should give children every opportunity to talk about what. 3.3.3. Describe with examples how transitions may affect children and young people’s behaviour and development. Transitions are an essential part of a  child and young persons development. These changes within a child or young persons life may be progressive or sudden. They present the child/young person with challenges which they must overcome. Transitions are stressful for children and young people, just as they are for adults, and the resulting stress can have far-reaching effects on children’s emotional well being and academic achievements. How a child or young person deals with transitions is greatly affected by the support and response children get from those around them. A child’s early experiences of transitions will have a big impact on how they handle transitions at later stages of life. As some changes of transitions are not anticipated, they can cause distress and feelings of lack of control in the child or young person. This can affect emotional and behavioural development, in turn leading to possible impacts on physiological and intellectual development. The transitions that children and young people face can be: Emotional: affected by personal experiences, for example bereavement or the divorce or separation of parents ,Physical: moving to a new home, class or school, Intellectual: moving from one type of organisation to another, for example from nursery to school, primary school to secondary school, secondary school to college or college to university Physiological: going through puberty or a long-term medical condition. Puberty is a major transition that all children at some point, will have to go through. It can be a difficult time for both sexes emotionally, socially and physically. Behaviour will change and so will their physical appearance, which may cause them to feel insecure, especially if they are female. Peer approval will become increasingly important and may be related to physical development. Males may show more aggressive behaviour as their hormone levels increase and females may become insecure about late development or embarrassed about early development. Both sexes will be very aware of their changes and will compare their own rate of development with that of their friends. Most, reach puberty around the same time, some develop earlier and some later. Boys who develop more quickly are often found to be more popular and independent. Girls, however, if developing earlier than their friends tend to get teased and have a more negative experience. The development of breasts can be very embarrassing for a girl, as it may bring a lot of unwanted comments and attention, not only from boys, but also from other girls who may be jealous of the attention the girl  is getting, or may be teasing and gossiping. This can lower a person’s confidence and make them feel very uncomfortable. Changing for sports in a communal area could become an issue, with other girls staring, and may make the young person stay away from sports, preferring to go sick, rather than endure the unwanted attention. One main transition within a child’s life is changing schools. This can make children feel insecure, nervous and anxious about the unknown. Whilst they may feel some sense of excitement about the new experiences they will be exposed too they will generally be apprehensive. They may be leaving behind good friends, loved teachers, a great support network and may feel a huge sense of loss. Their behaviour may change, they may become withdrawn and emotional. TDA 2.2: Safeguarding the welfare of children and young people. 1.1.1 Identify the current Identify the Current Legislation, Guidelines, Policies and Procedures for Safeguarding the Welfare of Children and Young People including e-safety. The current legislation and guidelines are policies and procedures for safeguarding who is promoting children’s welfare and putting measures in lace to improve children’s safety and preserve abuse. Child protection who are action taken to protect child when there is a reasonable belief that they are at risk of significant harm. All in setting for children and young people in England and Wales are the result of legislation passed in parliament, including England and Wales, the children Act 1989 and children Act 2004. Current Identify the Current Legislation, Guidelines for Safeguarding the Welfare of Children and Young People are Children’s act 1098/2004, Education act 2002,E-safety 2008, Safeguarding, Human rights act, The Vetti ng and Barring Scheme. Children’s act 2004 has five outcomes for well-being in childhood and later life. These are: being healthy; staying safe; enjoying and achieving; making a positive contribution and achieving economic well-being. In 2000, an 8 year old girl called Victoria Climbià ¨ was tortured and murdered by her guardians. Her death resulted in a mass investigation and the demand for stricter child safety laws. The inquest in 2003, lead by Lord Laming, led to the green paper, a preliminary report of government proposals that is published in order to raise discussion on the matter, named Every Child Matters The Act includes: a Children’s Commissioner to champion the views and interests of children and young  people; a duty on Local Authorities to make arrangements to promote co-operation between agencies and other appropriate bodies (such as voluntary and community organisations) in order to improve children’s well-being (where well-being is defined by reference to the five outcomes), and a duty on key partners to take part in the co-operation arrangements; a dut y on key agencies to safeguard and promote the welfare of children; a duty on Local Authorities to set up Local Safeguarding Children Boards and on key partners to take part; provision for indexes or databases containing basic information about children and young people to enable better sharing of information; a requirement for a single Children and Young People’s Plan to be drawn up by each Local Authority; a requirement on Local Authorities to appoint a Director of Children’s Services and designate a Lead Member; the creation of an integrated inspection framework and the conduct of Joint Area Reviews to assess local areas’ progress in improving outcomes; and provisions relating to foster care, private fostering and the education of children in care. Education Act 2002 refers to an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which amended legislation relating to academies, publicly-funded schools operating outside of local government control and with a significant degree of autonomy areas such as wages and digressing from the na tional curriculum. Policies and procedures All settings and pre-schools working with children and young people must have a policy for protection of children under the age of 18 that states responsibilities and is reviewed annually, preparations to work with the Local Safeguarding Children Board, a duty to apprise the Independent Safeguarding Authority of any individual who is threat to children, training on safeguarding for all staff and volunteers, effective rick assessment of the provision to check that the safeguarding policy and plans work, arrangements for DRB checks on all adults who has regular connection with children up to age of 18, contact details of a parent or carer for all children under the age of 18. E-safety The internet and video games are very popular with children and young people and offer a range of opportunities for fun, learning and development. But there are concerns over potentially inappropriate material, which range from  content (eg violence) through to contact and conduct of children in the digital world. Debates and research in this area can be highly polarised and charged with emotion. Dr Tanya Byron, in her landmark report ‘Safer Children in a Digital World’, published in March 2008,set out a challenging agenda for Government, its partners, industry and the third sector, to work together to make children safer when using the internet and video games. Government accepted all of Dr Byron’s recommendations in full, signifying our commitment to children’s safety when using new technology. We cannot make internet completely safety but we can reduse the rick to children and help them to use it properly and safety; blocking access to unsuitable web sites by using a program, reducing the time spend front of the PC, teach the children of dangers and how to recognize them, helping to the children to develop skills to deal with situations, educating parents using internet properly and carer about risks and controls. 1.1.2 Describe the roles of different agencies involved in safeguarding the welfare of children and young people. All children are known by many organisations. That helps to bring effective safeguarding and make the children to feel more secure. Many children know the Childline -0800 1111 Social Services- There to offer support to the child and the setting. Social services have the powers to investigate any suspected improper behaviour from carers, children or the setting. They also have to meet and conduct interviews with the child and the family members involved, liaise with and get relevant information about the child and their circumstances from other agencies involved with the child, they have to take the lead during the Child Protection Conference as well as take action when a child or young person appears or is thought to be in immediate danger. Child Protection Investigation Unit (CPIU)- Unit run by the police who have the powers to investigation, who have the powers to investigate, interview and arrest anyone who is suspected of abusing a child. The CPIU has to make a decision on whether a crime has been committed and if so to begin a criminal investigation. They also have to gather evidence from Social Services and other agencies thought to be involved with the child or young person’s wellbeing. The CPIU must take immediate action if a child or young person is thought to be in any immediate danger which may involve removing the child  from harm or removing the perpetrator and attend any court hearing to give evidence when a crime has been commited. Health Visitors- Health visitors can sometimes be the first person to see signs of abuse, especially physical. They have a duty of care to refer such information to Social Services. Health visitors must carry out a full medical examination or observations of any child or young person who is thought to be at risk of abuse or is/has suffered from abuse. Schools: Schools have the responsibility to develop childrens awareness and their knowledge of what is acceptable and what is not acceptable behaviour, including when using the internet. Support and protect children who are identified as being at greater risk or are on the at risk register and provide professional training of all staff relating to safeguarding. Have policies and securtiy systems for e-learning activities and use software filters. Observe signs of abuse, chages in childrens behaviour or failure to thrive and refer any concerns. Children spend a great amount of time in school with teachers and staff so it is essential staff are able to monitor, keep records, share appropriate information with other agencies and just be aware of any unexplained changes in the child. Any setting such as nursery, childminder, afterschool or holiday scheme. Another agencies are General Practitioners, Local hospital services, child psychology services. 2.2.1 Identify the sign and symptoms of common childhood illnesses. Most children and young people will experience some episodes of illness in their life. Common illnesses, like coughs and colds, are not usually serious. However, illnesses like meningitis are more serious and will need specialist medical care. Illnesses, like chicken pox, are infectious (easily spread) and others, like asthma, are not infectious at all. It is important for anyone who works with children and young people to be able to recognize the signs of illness and know what action to take. The main signs of illness in a child or young person are poor appetite, no energy, change in behaviour (unusually quiet, not sleeping well, crying more than usual), constipation or diarrhoera, vomiting, skin rash, raised body temperature, a cough, headache, stomach ache, earache or runny nose. Signs and symptoms Young children find it difficult to describe how they feel. They may say that they have ‘tummy ache’ when they actually feel upset, afraid or  worried. Children’s symptoms can worsen very quickly and they should always be taken seriously and not ignored. Frequently the illness are common cold the symptoms are, sneezing, sore throat ,runny nose, headache, temperature. Is important for adult to encourage child to blow nose,the incubation period is 1-3 days. Gastroenteritis the symptoms are vomiting diarrhoea ,dehydration. The treatment,that the child is not dehydrated it is important to give him water often. Scarlet fever,the symptoms are lose appetite,fever sore throat pale around the mouth,strawberry tongue,the treatment it’s important the child rest and adult observe if there is complications. The incubation period 2-4 days. Chicken pox,fever ,very itchy rash with blister-type appearance,the treatment,tepid bath with sodium bicarbonate and calamine applied to skin to stop itching to stop children scratching to avoid scarring. Dysentery – vomiting, diarrhoea with blood and mucus, abdominal pain, fever, headache. Measles- high fever, runny nose and eyes, cough, white spots in mouth, blotchy rash on body and face. Mumps – pain and swelling of jaw, painful swallowing, fever. Rubella (German measles) – slight cold, sore throat, swollen glands behind ears, slight pink rash. Pertussis (whooping cough) – snuffy cold, spasmodic cough with whoop sound, vomiting. Meningitis- fever, headache, irritability, drowsiness, confusion, dislike of light, very stiff neck, maybe small red spots beneath the skin that do not disappear when a glass is pressed against them. 2.2.2 Describe the actions to take when children or young people are ill or injured. Parents or guardians have prime responsibility for their child’s health and should provide the school with information about their child’s medical condition and treatment or special care needed at school. Children should not attend school if they are acutely unwell. The setting or pre-school has a duty of care to look after children with a known medical condition or who become ill or have an accident during school hours. Every setting or pre-school must have First Aid box and at least one individual how is fully trained. In time of accident the key person must be act. If is neseserry can call to emergency. Every setting and pre-school has defferent rules but they must follow the rutenes that will helps to the children. 2.2.3 Identify circumstances when children and young people might require urgent medical attention. Some children may be too young or may not be physically able to tell you when they need medical attention due to a disability. Often children and young people can become seriously ill very suddenly which means that as a member of staff you should be alert to any changes in their behaviour which could indicate pain or nausea. When a child becomes sick or lets you know that they feel unwell, you will need to sufficiently look after them until their parent or a carer arrives to collect them. In life threatening situations the emergency services should always be contacted straight away. An example of this would be if a child had any of the following signs of acute illness: an open wound that won’t stop bleeding or where the blood is pumping out,burns or scalds to the child’s skin, Meningitis symptoms such as a stiff neck, fever, headache and a rash that doesn’t fade when pressed by a glass,confusion, headache, vomiting or blurred vision after a head injury. Being floppy, unresponsive or unconscious. Difficulty breathing and blueness around the lips. Having a high fever, heat exhaustion or severe sunburn. Some children may be too young or may not be physically able to tell you when they need medical attention due to a disability. Often children and young people can become seriously ill very suddenly which means that as a member of staff you should be alert to any changes in their behaviour which could indicate pain or nausea. When a child becomes sick or lets you know that they feel unwell, you will need to sufficiently look after them until their parent or a carer arrives to collect them. In life threatening situations the emergency services should always be contacted straight away.If is necessary call to 999 for an ambulance. 2.2.4. Describe the actions to take in response to emergency situations including fires, security incidents and missing children and young people. You have to know where the fire exit are. Never put anything on the way of a fire way. Close door and windows and try to get out the children from the fire place.Make sure that the children are awalys with an adult. Call to the fire brigade by telephone as soon as you can as follow dear 999, give you phone number, make sure that you spell the address correctly and it received. Any setting must have security. For example at the pre-school where I have a plcemenet the main door alwaiys is locked, the emergency door  is open only from inside.When some one rings is very easy to look how is there.The key person knows the main people who visit the pre-school regulary.In case some stanger get in there is visitor book, check for indentity. Any stranger seen hanging around school or in the school grounds should be reported without delay to the headteacher who WILL call police if necessary. Any stranger found in the building should be challenged by a senior member of staff. If a child cannot be found by their teacher/support worker/lunchtime supervisor, the headteacher must be notified immediately and told when and where the child was last seen. The remaining children will be left safe in the care of suitable staff. All other staff available will conduct a thorough search of the childs classroom, play area,toilets, the school building and the grounds If the child is not found within a very short period of time, the police must be called by the headteacher or a member of staff. 3.3.1. Identify the characteristics of different types of children abuse. Physical Abuse Defined as non-accidental trauma or physical injury caused by punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning or otherwise harming a child, physical abuse is the most visible form of child maltreatment. Many times, physical abuse results from inappropriate or excessive physical discipline. A parent or caretaker in anger may be unaware of the magnitude of force with which he or she strikes the child. Other factors that can contribute to child abuse include parents’ immaturity, lack of parenting skills, poor childhood experiences and social isolation, as well as frequent crisis situations, drug or alcohol problems and domestic violence. Physical indicators of abuse include bruises; lacerations; swollen areas; and marks on the child’s face, head, back, chest, genital area, buttocks or thighs. Wounds like human bite marks, cigarette burns, broken bones, puncture marks or missing hair may indicate abuse. A child’s behavior might also signal that something is wrong. Victims of physical abuse may display withdrawn or aggressive behavioral extremes, complain of soreness or uncomfortable movement, wear clothing that is inappropriate for the weather, express discomfort with physical contact or become chronic runaways. Sexual abuse At the extreme end of the spectrum, sexual abuse includes sexual intercourse or its deviations. Yet all offences that involve sexually touching a child, as well as non-touching offenses and sexual exploitation, are just as harmful and devastating to a child’s well-being. Touching sexual offenses include: Fondling; Making a child touch an adult’s sexual organs; and penetrating a child’s vagina or anus no matter how slight with a penis or any object that doesn’t have a valid medical purpose. Non-touching sexual offenses include: Engaging in indecent exposure or exhibitionism; Exposing children to pornographic material; Deliberately exposing a child to the act of sexual intercourse; and Masturbating in front of a child. Sexual exploitation can include:Engaging a child or soliciting a child for the purposes of prostitution; and Using a child to film, photograph or model pornography. These definitions are broad. In most countries, the legal definition of child molestation is an act of a person—adult or child—who forces, coerces or threatens a child to have any form of sexual contact or to engage in any type of sexual activity at the perpetrator’s direction. The effects of sexual abuse extend far beyond childhood. Sexual abuse robs children of their childhood and creates a loss of trust, feelings of guilt and self-abusive behavior. It can lead to antisocial behavior, depression, identity confusion, loss of self-esteem and other serious emotional problems. It can also lead to difficulty with intimate relationships later in life. The sexual victimization of children is ethically and morally wrong. Emotional Abuse Emotional abuse of a child is commonly defined as a pattern of behavior by parents or caregivers that can seriously interfere with a child’s cognitive, emotional, psychological or social development. Emotional abuse of a child — also referred to as psychological maltreatment — can include: Ignoring -either physically or psychologically, the parent or caregiver is not present to respond to the child. He or she may not look at the child and may not call the child by name. Rejecting-this is an active refusal to respond to a child’s needs (e.g., refusing to touch a child, denying the needs of a  child, ridiculing a child). Isolating-the parent or caregiver consistently prevents the child from having normal social interactions with peers, family members and adults. This also may include confining the child or limiting the child’s freedom of movement. Exploiting or corrupting. In this kind of abuse, a child is taught, encouraged or forced to develop ina ppropriate or illegal behaviors. It may involve self-destructive or antisocial acts of the parent or caregiver, such as teaching a child how to steal or forcing a child into prostitution. Verbally assaulting.This involves constantly belittling, shaming, ridiculing or verbally threatening the child. Terrorizing here, the parent or caregiver threatens or bullies the child and creates a climate of fear for the child. Terrorizing can include placing the child or the child’s loved one (such as a sibling, pet or toy) in a dangerous or chaotic situation, or placing rigid or unrealistic expectations on the child with threats of harm if they are not met. Neglecting the child. This abuse may include educational neglect, where a parent or caregiver fails or refuses to provide the child with necessary educational services; mental health neglect, where the parent or caregiver denies or ignores a child’s need for treatment for psychological problems; or medical neglect, where a parent or caregiver denies or ignores a child’s need for treatment for medical problems. Although the visible signs of emotional abuse in children can be difficult to detect, the hidden scars of this type of abuse manifest in numerous behavioral ways, including insecurity, poor self-esteem, destructive behavior, angry acts (such as fire setting and animal cruelty), withdrawal, poor development of basic skills, alcohol or drug abuse, suicide, difficulty forming relationships. Emotionally abused children often grow up thinking that they are deficient in some way. A continuing tragedy of emotional abuse is that, when these children become parents, they may continue the cycle with their own children. Neglect is usually typified by an ongoing pattern of inadequate care and is easily observed by individuals in close contact with the child. Professionals define four types of neglect physical, educational, emotional and medical. Bulling and harassment Bulling is act show aggressive, unrespect and rude actions. Bullying can take many forms: Physical violence, Intimidation and threats, Name calling and  belittling, Social exclusion (i.e., leaving someone out of social gatherings and activities), Gossiping and spreading rumors about others, Public humiliation, Using slurs, words or phrases that characterize a bullied victim’s identity to suggest that something is unacceptable or worthless (e.g., using the word â€Å"gay† when what is meant is â€Å"un-cool†).

Analysis Of US International Trade Commission Decisions In Antidumping, Countervailing Duty And Safeguard Cases Essay

                 International trade commission Introduction                        International trade commission (ITC) is definite by US Legal as an independent quasi-judicial federal agency with broad investigative responsibilities on matters of trade. The agency mainly focuses on the investigation that surrounds the effects of dumped and subsidized imports on the domestic market and industries and conducts some global investigation with the aim of safeguarding. ITC also deals with the cases that deal with the imports violation of property rights (Knes). Thus, the system mainly deals with providing the rules that govern the international trade. History                     The issue of international trade and tariffs had a great impact on the United States economy in the late 19th century. This was because the country was experiencing unprecedented industrialization and expansive trade with partners beyond the borders. Through an act of 15th May, 1882 President Chester A. Arthur appointed a tariff commission under the Treasury to investigate the country’s economic activities and make recommendations on the tariff regulation. Another commission was appointed in 5th August 1909 pursuant to Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, with the mandate collecting useful information that would help the government administer tariff laws. However, the commission was abolished in the mid-1912. A permanent solution was required on the issue of tariffs and international trade. The process to establish a tariff commission that would easily address international trade issues in the long term was started initiated in 1914, with the realization came in 1916 (Usitc.gov).                     The agency was formed by the US government, through the US congress, as an independent agency in the year 1916 and was named the Tariff Commission (Usitc.gov). The name of the agency was later changed to the United States international trade commission. The change was effected through section 171 of the Trade Act of 1974. The agency has three major elements in its mission that include: to administer US trade remedy laws within its mandate in a fair and an objective manner (Usitc.gov). The second element is to provide the president, and the congress with independent analysis, information, and support on matters of tariffs, international trade, and US competitiveness. Finally, the last element of the mission n relates to the maintenance of the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (HTS).                   In this light, to achieve it mandates, the commission is run by six commissioners who are tasked with implementing the various regulations and duties mandated to the commission. The six commissioners are appointed by the president through the advice and the approval of the senate. The term of the commissioners is mainly a nine years term although the term might be shorter if a commissioner is appointed to refill an unexpired term (Usitc.gov). Mandate                     The commission was set to fulfill certain mandates that were very crucial to the American economy. Mainly, the commission has five major operations which are aimed at serving the commissions clients who are mainly external clients (Usitc.gov). The operations are import injury investigations, intellectual property-based import investigations, industry and economic analysis, tariff and trade information services and trade policy support.   Import injury                   This operation mainly regards the investigations that are undertaken to assess the antidumping and countervailing duty or subsidy. This operation is done in collaboration with the United States department of commerce. Although the investigations are done in collaboration, both institutions address different goals in these investigations (Usitc.gov). The department of commerce main focus is on establishing whether the occurrence of the dumping and subsidizing as well as the level of dumping and subsidizing amount. On the other hand, the commission aims at establishing whether the US economy and industries are threatened by the said dumping and subsidizing (‘US Federal Trade Commission Recommends Privacy Be Put At Heart Of Facial Recognition Tech’).                        Investigation on the import injury is prompted by the petitions that are filed by the US industries, who believe that the imports are sold in the US market at a price that is lower than the fair value. Prices lower than the fair value indicates dumping. Additionally, the industries petition against the imports that are advantaged in the sense that they enjoy counter available subsidies that are provided through the foreign government programs (Usitc.gov). The main reason for petitioning is because these acts make the marketing space unfair; thus the industries aim at leveling the playing field.                     If the decisions are arrived at by the both agencies are affirmative of the petitions laid to them by the industries petitioners, the commerce department issues an order to restrict this imports. The omission is also responsible for conducting investigations that relate to the global safeguards and market disruptions that may cause harm to the American industries (Usitc.gov). In effect, the commission makes recommendations to the president; these recommendations are aimed at offering remedy to the injury caused and facilitate industry adjustment to competition from outside products.   Intellectual Property Based Import Investigations                   The commission is highly involved in petitions regarding intellectual property rights. These petitions rate to patent and trademark infringements that are caused by imported goods. The investigation if successful results to a remedy that informs the customs prevent infringing imports from entering the boundaries (Usitc.gov). Furthermore, the commission may issue orders that bar those who are engaged in unfair acts from entering the country. According to a newspaper article written by Soder indicate that, â€Å"the commission has agreed to investigate whether 17 retailers — including big-name brands such as the Gap, American Eagle and Abercrombie & Fitch — are importing jeans made in a way that violates patents owned by RevoLaze LLC of Westlake.†   Industry and Economic Analysis                      The commission is also mandated with industrial and economic analysis task. This analysis is done by two offices that are: the Office of Industries and the Office of Economics (Usitc.gov). The commission offers this two offices technical support on economic matters (Pandit, Pg. 15). A good example is when the commission was requested by the US Senate Committee on Finance to investigate the effects of the digital trade in the US and the world economy in general (USITC, Pg. 1).                           The commission put the finding in three level tiers, where the findings were grouped as the firm level finding, industry level findings and economy level findings. The firm-level research was conducted on ten digital intensive industries (USITC, Pg. 32). The firms were questioned on the reason and the benefits they derived from using digital technology. The results of individual firms culminated to the results of the various industries. The economy wide findings summed the benefits of all the companies and industries and summarized them to general benefits (USITC, Pg. 33). This report gives a clear indication of the importance of the commission in providing the technical support to the various arms of government. Tariff and Trade Information Services                      The commission is also tasked with investigations that regarding tariffs. The United States economies practices some harmonized tariffs mechanism (Usitc.gov). Therefore, the commission makes recommendations regarding the modifications of the harmonized tariffs schedules so that to ensure the tariffs are in line with the World Custom Organization recommendations (Greenbaum et al., Pg. 160). A blog posted by Ngoriel indicates the commission conducted research to determine the hurdles that the US SMEs are facing when trading with the EU. The research findings indicate that the SMEs are facing various barriers that are unduly heavy on them when compared to the large companies. The commission made suggestion that the SMEs should be included in the trade negotiations between the US and the EU. Ngoriel indicated that, â€Å"among the challenges that were affecting the SMEs included high tariffs and inconsistent EU rules and testing mandates non-science-ba sed regulations, and a lack of harmonization between U.S. and EU standards.† Trade Policy Support                     The trade policy makers, both in the executive and the legislative branch of the government, source for the technical support from the commission (Usitc.gov). Additionally, the commission offers the government information on the various international trade issues through their various researches, briefings and meetings, and testimonies at the congressional hearings. Additionally, under this operation the commission is tasked with the work of making some final decisions on behalf the office of the president as well as drafting the President’s decrees and other documents (Usitc.gov). Benefits of the Commission to the US Economy                     The commission offers significant benefits to the United States economy. One, the commission offers noteworthy advantages to the country’s industries, especially when they are facing unfair competition from Imports. According the article published by V. James Adduci II and Tom M. Schaumberg in The American Corporate Counsel Magazine, the intellectual property owners have discovered the commission offers them an efficient and cost effective mechanism for protecting their rights (Caddel).                         In this regard, several jurisdictions around the globe have amended their laws and regulations in order to make them be congruent with the Act through which the Commission was founded. The Uruguay Round Agreements Act (â€Å"URAA†) amended its section 337 to make compliant with US international obligations (V. James Adduci II and Tom M. Schaumberg).                        In addition, the commission is helpful in establishing fair trading environment for the firms in the United States. According to Ngoriel, the commission improved the SMEs voice on the unfair treatment in their trading with the European Union. The commission affirmed the SMEs position on the high tariffs which the SMEs have to meet in their international trade operations (Usitc.gov). The commission emphasized on the need to incorporate the SMEs in any international trade negotiations with the United States trading partners.               Furthermore, the commission is essential in ensuring that the government is furnished with proper international trade information. This is done through research that is conducted by the commission and ultimately providing precise and accurate information that would guide the government to make proper decisions (Usitc.gov). A good example is the research that the commission conducted on behalf of the Senate (Bilmes). The research enabled the commission to make conclusive arguments regarding the impact of digital technology on the US firms, industries, and the economy as well as the world at large. Challenges Faced by the Commission                      The most significant challenge or difficult the difference of the trade laws among the various US trading partners. Some trade partners are very crucial to the running and success of the United States economy (Usitc.gov). Therefore, difficulty arises when the commission tries to harmonize the trading laws that govern the partners and the United States. This is seen in Caddel (Pg. 9) research paper, where the Caddel states that, â€Å"The Customs Court Act of 1980 created a special U.S. Court of International Trade with exclusive jurisdiction over appeals from the ITA and ITC. This act specifically provides standing for foreign companies and other domestic industries to challenge decisions and even allows the Court to hold hearings in foreign countries to ensure that foreign companies have the opportunity to respond. The result is a court that commonly rules against decisions of the ITA and ITC and maintains a rough balance between protectionism and free trade.†                     Additionally, although the commission is an independent institution, it faces some restriction in its operations. One the commission acts as an arbitration court for various issues it handles. After the commission makes a determination, the ruling is subjected to additional reviews by the US Court of Appeals (McDermott Will & Emery, Pg. 7). Moreover, all the determinations made by the commission are subjected to the presidential review. Although the presidential reviews are limited in scope by the public policy concerns, there have been a handful of instances when the commission recommendations and determinations have been rejected or overturned by the president (McDermott Will & Emery, Pg. 7). Also, the commission faces some challenges through political interference. Caddel (Pg 1) states that, â€Å"Research on the U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC), an independent agency responsible for adjudicating AD/CVD claims, finds mixed evidence of po litical influence in these cases.† This demonstrates the political influence on the commission activities; the political influence is attributed to the congressional dominance. The congress influence is seen through its oversight powers over the commission (Caddel, 5). Recommendation to the Challenges                   The commission is very crucial to the running of the countries affairs in the international arena. Therefore, the government should work tirelessly to improve the trade relationship with its partners which will easily ease the operations the commission operation (Knes, Baldwin and Steagall). Due to the free trade agreements with partners like Canada and Mexico, the commission easily deals with these economies when dealing with trade harmonization operations (Knes). Moreover, the commission should be given a strong judicial framework that will earn the confidence of many individual, companies and economies. This judicial strength will enable the commission ruling to be taken as final, thus minimizing the appeals of the commission rulings. In effect, the consequential results will be an increase confidence in the commission. Conclusion                        The United States International Trade Commission is an important organ in the US economy and the relations with the global players. The commission has gone through significant metamorphosis that started in the late 19th century. The commission has increasingly been helpful in solving various issues that are face the United States industries. The commission has been in the forefront of protecting the economy’s players from unfair trade practices. References Adduci II, V. James Adduci II, and Tom M. Schaumberg. ‘Section 337 Offers Significant Advantages When Facing Unfair Competition From Imports | Adduci, Mastriani & Schaumberg LLP’. Adduci.com. N.p., 2013. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. Baldwin, Robert E, and Jeffrey W Steagall. Analysis Of US International Trade Commission Decisions In Antidumping, Countervailing Duty And Safeguard Cases. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research, 1994. Print. Bilmes, Jack. ‘Generally Speaking: Formulating An Argument In The US Federal Trade Commission’. Text & Talk – An Interdisciplinary Journal of Language, Discourse Communication Studies 28.2 (2008): 193-217. Web. Caddel, Jeremy. ‘Domestic Competition Over Trade Barriers In The US International Trade Commission’. International Studies Quarterly 58.2 (2013): 260-268. Web. Greenbaum, Noam et al. ‘Paleohydrology Of Extraordinary Floods Along The Swakop River At The Margin Of The Namib Desert And Their Paleoclimate Implications’. Quaternary Science Reviews 103 (2014): 153-169. Web. Knes, Michael. ‘U.S. International Trade Commission – Duties, Benefits’. Referenceforbusiness.com. N.p., 2014. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. Ngoriel,. ‘U.S. International Trade Commission Releases Report On How T-TIP Will Benefit Small Businesses’. Sba.gov. N.p., 2014. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. Pandit, Ram. ‘US Trade Barriers And Import Price Of Canadian Softwood Lumber’. The International Trade Journal 23.4 (2009): 399-421. Web. Soder, Chuck. ‘U.S. International Trade Commission To Investigate If Retailers Are Importing Jeans Violating Revolaze Patents’. Crain’s Clevleand Business 2014. Web. 9 Dec. 2014. ‘US Federal Trade Commission Recommends Privacy Be Put At Heart Of Facial Recognition Tech’. Biometric Technology Today 2012.10 (2012): 1-2. Web. USITC,. Digital Trade In The U.S. And Global Economies, Part 2. 1st ed. United States International Trade Commission, 2014. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. Usitc.gov,. ‘About The USITC | USITC’. Usitc.gov. N.p., 2014. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. Usitc.gov,. ‘E-Discovery Limits — USITC Considers Proposal To Streamline Section 337Investigations’. Usitc.gov. N.p., 2014. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. Source document

Hartmann vs Loudon County Board of Education: Impact on LRE Essay

In the case of Hartmann vs. Loudon County Board of Education, the plaintiff alleged that the defendant failed to educate Mark Hartmann, a student with autism, with non-handicapped children to the maximum extent appropriate. Mark Hartmann is an eleven-year-old child who has a developmental disorder characterized by significant deficiencies in communication skills, social interaction and motor control. He was joined in regular classroom during his pre school years at Butterfield Elementary, Illinois with self-contained classes as well. He was provided with speech and occupational therapy while doing so. So, when they moved to Loudon County, Virginia, and his parents sent him to Ashburn Elementary he was placed at the regular education classroom based from his IEP at Illinois. Mark was provided with all the support including SPED Teacher, Special Aide, Therapist, etc. However eventually, Mark manifested episodes of behavioral problems such as screeching, hitting, pinching, kicking, biting and removing his clothes. His IEP team declared that there was no academic progress noted for Mark in his stay with the regular classroom hence it has been proposed to place him in a specifically structured class at Leesburg Elementary. His parents refused to sign the new IEP and demanded court hearings against the Board due to failures of providing appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. The Hartmanns won the case on the basis that Loudon County failed to provide appropriate steps to try to include Mark in a regular class. They also rejected the administrative findings that Mark could not receive significant educational benefit in a regular classroom. The district relied heavily on the reading of Mark’s experience in Illinois and Montgomery County, where he moved. Also, they regarded disruptive behavior as not a significant factor in determining the appropriate educational placement for a disabled child. However IDEA too expresses the relationship between local school authorities and a reviewing district court such that invitation to the courts is by no means to substitute their own notions of sound educational policy for those of the school authorities. IDEA also notes that administrative findings are prima facie correct. IDEA also does no prohibit educators of the right to present professional judgment and although states have been tasked to give specialized instruction and other services, it is not required to furnish every special service necessary for the child. The appropriateness of Mark’s education becomes inappropriate when despite supplementary aides and services; his education is not achieved satisfactorily due to the severity of the disability. The progress Mark was making at his speech therapy was due to its one on one setting. The Illinois report of his presumed progress was considered flawed. In consideration of Mark’s social skills that were due to interaction with non-disabled peers, this however cannot outweigh his failure to progress in academics in the regular classes. The Supreme Court in favor of the Loudon County Board of Education has therefore reversed the decisions of the district court. I feel that this case impacts on my understanding of the Least Restrictive environment. Clearly, the case helped me clarify issues of appropriateness of education for disabled students, factors to consider in conducting assessments of the students, the relationship between behavior and academic performance vis a vis educational placement decisions, the significance of IEP as a basis for a student’s current performance, and most specially the smooth relationship between parents and educators in arriving at a common understanding for the benefit of the student. This new knowledge is beneficial for me in two ways: in properly interpreting IDEA and in improving assessment of students so that proper IEP is made, appropriate educational placement is suggested and modified teaching strategies and methods are implemented. This case has been important in public education in terms of determining proper relationships between local school authorities and district courts and in the consideration of evidences that are most significant to the case. Also, it created a new sentiment as regards the notion of LRE and FAPE, that mainstreaming favors educational benefit of the student but is not sufficient to attain so.

Mandatory Sentencing Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mandatory Sentencing - Coursework Example This is because mandatory sentencing acts like a standardized method of passing judgment that favor every person. In fact, it eliminates the sympathy factor. Basing on substantial research in the United States, especially in regions like Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, and Florida, mandatory sentencing has a little or no preventative effect because crimes happen even when the masterminds are still in prison. In addition, mandatory sentencing is expensive and labor intensive (Zimring, 2004). This is in relation to housing the offenders, providing them with basic needs, providing security. In the United States, it costs up to $50,000 to take care of a prisoner in a single year, and approximately $300,000 to build a new prison cell. In my opinion, mandatory sentencing provisions are cynical. They can only be substantial in the hands of judges, who have a professional background in dealing with crimes. Politicians use such policies to instill fear in people so that they can gain and retain political power, even when they do not deserve it. The Judiciary arm should be independent as possible. Interference by the Legislature deprives it of its authority to exercise power. All cases should be left for the courts to view and assess the causes, come up with evidence and give a legitimate conclusion. Mandatory sentencing gives rise to personal bias because the verdict is always given by the prosecutor, who may give low-level offenders a high level mandatory sentence due to personal indifferences. Mandatory sentencing is a good weapon in reducing crimes and boosting community well being. This is very effective especially where people illegally use guns or other public threatening weapons without prior permission. However, it deprives people of their human rights since some may receive unfair judgment especially if not listened to or when their cases are not investigated into. Sherman, L., Gottfredson, D.,

What are the alternatives for a malaria vaccine after the RTS,S Essay

What are the alternatives for a malaria vaccine after the RTS,S disappointments - Essay Example f the fact that a vaccine based on blood-stage antigens could put restrictions or arrest the spread of disease, and the causes of death in recipients even if it is does not prevent infections. The crossing point between host and parasite entail composite molecular interactions that are associated with the identification and attack of the host cells or acquiring nutrients from the cytoplasm or the plasma milieu. It entails working by use of alpha –helical coiled coil domains of some proteins that are expected to be available in the parasite during the erythrocytic stage those peptides are expected to be similar in their structural nature to the native epitopes. It is widely known as the transmission-blocking vaccine which is designed to produce an immune response in human hosts, as a result of which the growth of the parasite into mosquito vector and the ultimate transmission is bound to be fruitless. The generation of malaria vaccine has not been an easy task due to the nature of the parasite. In essence, it has a complicated life cycle that has rapid amplification once it has entered the human body posing a great predicament. The continuous resistance of both the parasite and the anti malaria drugs has made the development of an effective malaria vaccine a global priority with an ideal malaria vaccine expected to stimulate natural acquired immunity in communities where malaria is endemic. Malaria, is a mosquito-borne, protozoal illness, identified as a parasite disease with the vector been a mosquito in early 19th century. Its infection manifest in human beings as a result of infection by Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale or Plasmodium malariae with Plasmodium falciparum that is responsible for mass clinical cases and mortalities. In essence, the female anopheles mosquito transmits the plasmodium parasite. According to Coleman and Tsongalis 2009, it leaves the parasite in the human blood in the process of feeding on the

Trade agreements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Trade agreements - Essay Example It is also seen that in the context of EU, the aspects of consistency are important. The relationships of EU with its trading partners, Africa needs to be seen in the larger context of consistency. This is because the EU cannot afford to have one set of rules at one point of time and a different set at another. There are around 79 countries in the ACP membership list (African Caribbean Pacific list) and have been the beneficiaries of favored treatment for special access to European markets. (The EU in the world the foreign policy of the European Union 2007). The main problem is that African Nation is having a fear that it brings back that EU colonial system in the country. They are thinking that it will limit their development and would compromise their sovereignty. European Union is of the view that it will promote development in science and technology results in mutual benefit. Relation between both nations will help to facilitate Africa into world economy by promoting growth and investment. It provides provision for social and cultural cooperation and financial assistance. However, this is all with a return bargain that the EU goods shall be allowed to enter the ACP countries at lowered tariffs, and shall enjoy being the destination point for the goods of EU in these countries. This lowering of tariff of imported goods hurts the local economy since now imported goods would vie with local goods which, apparently would be highly priced in the local markets. The consumers would opt for cheaper imported goods and thus local industry would have no option but to stagnate, without government protection and subsidies. However, the main advantages of trade agreements is that the economy would become more competitive and , in the current globalised setting , it would be constrained to improve on all aspects- quality, quantity, pricing , servicing and customer retention. "The most important element of the bilateral agreement remains the establishment of a FTA between the EU and South Africa." (Drew 2000). The aspects of government subsidies and grants to local products could be seen in the larger context of protectionist measures intended to alleviate the onslaught of competitive products, and to create revenue generations for the Government. In the long run, agricultural subsidies and grants to farmers, especially in the ACP countries, do more harm than good, and could have long term deleterious effects on the governmental proceedings. In the African context, it is seen that their problem is not in terms of having market access to European markets but in having a volume of goods and services to be exported, in terms of bulk, and at reasonable prices caused by achieving economies of large-scale operations. When volume content is not available, the ACP would not be able to make competitive inroads into other export markets and this forms the nucleas of the problem over time. "The EPAs are thus meant to change the relationship between Europe and Africa, from one built on preferential ta riffs - an eroding lifeline - to one that builds lasting and more efficient markets for Africa." (Neroth 2007).The main disadvantages of the Trade Agreements could be seen in terms of the fact that the World Trade Organizations has ruled that all countries in a bloc need to be equally treated in trade and no preferential treatment could be accorded. "The EU and ACP have been granted a

MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS REVIEW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS REVIEW - Essay Example All of a sudden, international marketing is a vital skill and knowledge for a company to have. By means of the rapid progression of information technology, as we all know, the detachment almost does not exist anymore. All intercontinental corporations have to expand international marketing strategies. so, to understand international marketing improved, a detailed understanding of the a variety of stages that a business undergoes to turn into a intercontinental business is required. Basically, there are 4 stages that a business goes during before it finally becomes a intercontinental business. These 4 stages are Domestic, International, Multinational and international. The 5th stage may be termed as Transnational. In the domestic stage of a business, the only target market of the business exists in the home country. It can be said that the whole vision of the world for the company is limited to the home country. In this stage of growth the orientation of the business is ethnocentric. The 21st century has made the cosmetic surgery business very profitable. No doubt, television reality shows have put a spin on the process by targeting daily people and marketing it as an alteration or a new beginning kind of experience. Cosmetic events can be surgical and non-surgical. Surgical methods comprise facelifts and liposuction, and are performed in a surgeon's office-based ability, an outpatient surgery center, or a hospital. It's typically done on an outpatient basis, but a few surgeons may hospitalize patients for a day when using all-purpose anesthesia. Non-surgical events include Botox injections as well as Laser Resurfacing, typically performed in a surgeon's workplace in less than an hour. Three major reasons for having a cosmetic process are changing an innate trait for instance a "nose job," the second reason is to turn back time and reduce the effects of aging, and lastly body contouring for instance liposuction as well as a breast lift. Another reason would be h aving a mutilation due to an accident or a birth defect. Marketing Role Definition: Marketing is the mainly influential weapon obtainable to a business; though, marketing is frequently confused by means of sales and advertising. It is noted that commerce need to appreciate that marketing is much more than that. Marketing, in fact, has a variety of roltes in a firm or business; initially, it connects the commerce with its target market, it provides the main link among the business and its customers. Secondly, as marketing center on the needs and needs of customers, it gives a trade direction and helps it to direct in a changing environment. Thirdly, it offers the information the commerce needs in order to modify direction or regulate its tactics by providing latest products or changing obtainable products. Fourthly, marketing helps to organize how a business can finest use its resources to please customers and attain profit targets, yet the marketing plan can really be seen as the 'blueprint' for a business's future success. The intention of this paper is to show the rising demands of cosmetic procedures, as well as how the supply is being met in dissimilar ways than just the doctor's office. First I will explain the

Brand Image Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Brand Image Development - Essay Example Competitor Selection Coca-cola Company has been a successful company over the years and is the leading group in the beverage industry. It is known for the production of brands which include coke, Fanta, coke classic and Diet coke. It is a company that ensures that the demands of all consumers are met by their production of a wide variety of drinks. The company is devoted to offering secure and high quality beverages (The coca-cola company, 2012). They have gained the trust from customers because they provide honest and correct data especially on the nutritional information. This explains why it has a high-quality over all over the world. The products offered are of different sizes so that the consumer can choose from a variety. It recognizes the fact that the world is dynamic, and changes every day, therefore, they develop their products accordingly. The competitors have a low representation as Coca-Cola has the biggest percent, 70% of consumers as compared to Pepsi’s 20% and Schweppes’s, 10%. Analysis of Price The prices are reasonable and are developed depending on the market. They also vary depending on the size of the bottle and seasons. (The coca-cola company, 2012) Some seasons such as summer have the prices of the products elevated. Research shows that 13% of consumers buy products in relation to price. Analysis of Distribution Distribution is offered to middle men and retailers, and this way, the products are sold extensively. This incentive is taken to reduce the costs associated with individual distribution. They have one main distribution point whereby the middle men obtain the products. Coca-cola products are well distributed with only 3% who do not have some of the products available. Analysis of Promotion The coca-cola company promotes their products by conducting sales events, and develops competitions with prizes to be won. Promotions are aimed to persuade the customer and make them purchase the goods. Advertising is also a form of promotion in which Coca-cola is known for their catchy advertisements. This is done through newspapers, television, posters and billboards. They also offer scholarships to students and also sponsor events such as games (The ‘coca-cola’ brand & sponsorship, 2000). Coca-cola has been successful because of their uniqueness around the world. It maintains to be the most trusted beverage brand and is the most preferred brand in relation to the research. This shows that they promote their products in the right manner. Part 2 Brand Background Founded in 1886, coca-cola has continued to develop extensively throughout the world. (The Coca-Cola Company, 2012). Coca-Cola has kept on implementing brand strategies that involve renewing policies and systems to keep up with the changing world. Coca-cola believes in responsible marketing of their products. This is explained by the fact that they target different customers including children. The company, therefore, has a policy that co vers responsible marketing all over the world. Coca-Cola mainly targets the young people, and that is why most of advertising on media is done by young people. Coca-Cola has been the leading brand because the company keeps on reinventing their products.  

Explain what could have gone wrong at GM over the years, with respect Essay

Explain what could have gone wrong at GM over the years, with respect to quality, to have caused this crisis - Essay Example Several factors played a role that resulted to the crisis that led to General motors ultimately losing out its position as the world number one in auto manufacturing. These factors include union relationships that led ion the differentials in payroll between some of the foreign transplants and general motors, legacy in some costs and programs within the job banks. Other factors include poor strategies in management and decision-making in the development of products and the gap issues in qualities between the general motors automobiles and what its competitors produce. Finally, a major crisis developed from the foreign competitors through importation of automobiles from japan, manipulation of currency by the Japanese government and the foreign transplant in the United States (Klein 2000). General motors for many years has made several strategic errors. As it has been noted, general motors builds automobile in Asia, Europe and some south American countries as the market power demanded it, but they resisted in building small automobiles in the united states. The company did not fully come to understand the relative importance of building such automobiles its market. Therefore, this caused the general motors to try to dominate the small segment in the market attributed to the overall cost incurred and the profit margins in building smaller vehicles as compared to the larger ones. Their main competitors who are mainly the Japanese Toyota company were in a better position since they were well prepared to gaining a foothold in the United States market where they were to make significant growth and expand to even more segments in the market. More problems emerged in the nineties when general motors started manufacturing electric cars just to come and completely scrap the project and destroying all of its vehicles since the company felt that the project

The valid contract Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The valid contract - Case Study Example However, a point to be noticed in this context is that to be legally binding, the promise made by the party and its acceptance must be aimed at forming a legal relationship. Anything made out of natural relationship (or domestic arrangements) are assumed not to create any legally binding obligations. Nevertheless, the case -Parker Vs Clark [1960] NLR 286- demonstrates that although domestic arrangements are assumed not to create legally-binding obligations, in some cases this assumption may be overruled by the facts . obligations. Moreover, Irene made the offer without having any intention to avail consideration from Gina. The offer is made just out of natural relationship. Therefore, it is not possible for Gina to approach the court for justice and get the promised money from Irene. Though, Gina has made some promises after the promise by Irene, this does not amount to a promise, which is legally enforceable. In this context, the case Balfour v Balfour [1919] 2 KB 571 is worth notable as "it demonstrates the strong presumption that domestic agreements, even if framed in contractual terms, are not intended to create legal obligations" (Law Glossary, 2006). Usually, when an order is made by one party to another for the supply of certain goods for a consideration, it becomes a contract. Both parties are legally binding to the terms of the contract are obliged to perform their part. If any of them makes a default, the aggrieved party can claim compensation from the defaulted party as the transaction is legally enforceable. When one is making an offer to another on the strength of the offer made by a third party, and if the third party makes a default and it subsequently results in the non performance of the offer, the third party is no way affected by the default of the promissor. In the given case, though Irene has made a promise to pay Gina a sum of 15000 and subsequently defaulted to pay the sum, the offer (s) business or personal made by Gina will in no way affect Irene as the first offer itself is not a legally binding one. Therefore, it is not legally obligatory for Irene to pay the remaining amount to Kolumbie, the aromatherapy oil supplier. Is Gina liable to Jaymark Fitness for the 4,000 balance on her debt When an offer is made out of the strength of the offer of another and the subsequent default of the original offer, the second offer cannot be performed and will result in breach of contract. But, it is to be noticed that whether the original offer is legally binding or not. In the given case, the original offer is a domestic arrangement and it is out of the natural relationship between Irene and Gina. However, when Gina has placed an order for 10,000 worth goods and after the default by Irene, Gina could not keep the promise that the payment shall be paid later. Gina informed Jaymark that she could not pay the 10,000 owed but could manage 6,000 and that if Jaymark tried to sue her for more, she would declare herself bankrupt and Jaymark would get nothing at all. Jaymark reluctantly agreed to accept the 6,000 in full and final satisfaction of the debt. Therefore, Gina is not

Observational Essay -Time Square, New York Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Observational -Time Square, New York - Essay Example Most of the buildings are tall and seem to beckon to passers by. The streets are well tarmaced and clearly marked to make the follow of traffic as efficient as possible. The place is full of different types of businesses ranging from hotels, bars, peep shows, and supermarkets among others. The businesses and activities taking place in this area make it a fashionable tourist destination. This became evident as I could see many tourists waltzing in the area, and they kept coming in good numbers. My observation reveals that for its numerous attractions, the place attracts very huge numbers of tourists from different parts of the globe every day. I noticed a huge presence of uniformed police officers along the streets of Times Square. The officers patrol the place night and day to ensure that assure people’s security is secured. I noticed that Times Square hosts very many beautiful hotels some offering pocket friendly menus while others are extremely expensive. Some of the inexpensive hotels I happened to visit during my tour of the area include The Hotel at Times Square, The Portland Hotel at Times Square and the Comfort Inn Times Square Hotel. These hotels offer a variety of foods with some offering traditional and others exotic. The hotels I visited include the InterContinental Times Square, New York Times Square, and The Cooper Square. I discovered that since it is very expensive to have an accommodation in the three of these hotels, majority of those who eat or get an accommodation there are tourists and extremely rich nationals. Prostitution is also very high at Times Square, particularly male prostitution. Here, male prostitution appears to be a common entrepreneurial business, done in a very organized way. This is because it is openly done and is commonly referred to as ‘hustling’. The term ‘hustling’ is used since the young prostitutes use

The Abuse of Alcohol Essay Example for Free

The Abuse of Alcohol Essay A large part of the population in the United States abuse or used to abuse alcohol. The health and social problems are enormous, leading to an increase in unemployment, homelessness and even death. Alcoholism can cause a lonely and poor life style. Many people use certain excuses to drink such as; â€Å"it is just one party†; or even â€Å"I will just have a couple† of drinks, but the fact is that they are addicted to alcohol. The Doctors claim that fifty percent of alcoholism is due to genetic inheritance, but drinking habits also are influenced by their environment and lifestyle, such as group of friends or stress levels. There are a signs that we can use to identify alcohol abuse, like problems at school or work (including being late or not showing up) due to drinking. Also, when you cannot control how much you drink, make excuses for your drinking, wake-up in the morning drinking or drink alone and many others signs. Alcohol is a psychologically addictive drug that can provide a new world for some people, a world where they are important and happy. When the alcohol wears off they find they are no different so they need to drink more to again became happy. The reality is, that people drink to forget their problems or to relieve their stress, not realizing that drinking causes more problems than it can solve, but unfortunately it is a legal drug that the society does not discriminate against.

Organisational development and organisatins effectiveness and viabi

Organisational development and organisatins effectiveness and viabi The most bizarre thing about Organisational development is that there is not a single definition capable of explaining it properly; in simple terms Organisational development can be regarded as planned change concept, organisation wide effort to increase an organisations effectiveness and viability. Organization development is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, personality, psychology, and theories of motivation. It is considered both applied behavioural science focused on understanding and managing organizational change as well as a field of scientific study and enquiry (en.wikipedia.orgwiki/organization_development). Kurt Lewin (1898-1947) is credited with the origin and development as it is his work on Group dynamics and Action-Research which corroborates the basic OD process. Going through the history it would be worth saying that 1960s were the Influential period of T-group which saw the inculcation of Lewins Force Field analysis and organisational theory (Lawre nce and Lorsch, 1967; Argyris, 1962; Harisson, 1963, 66). Planned change approach coined by Kurt Lewin is corroborated by the humanistic and democratic values and had its focus upon resolving group issues and improvement through the involvement of managers, employees and a change consultant (Bernard Burnes, 2004). Till 1980s planned Change was the dominant approach to manage organisational change, however by 1980s it faced harsh criticism regarding the ability to stand for the organisations operating in dynamic and unpredictable environments. This essay will discuss the origin and objectives of Organisational development. Going further insights will be developed regarding the evolution of organisational development and its present scenario. Critical evaluation and comparison will be done in order to determine the difference between the present one and the original developed and to understand whether Organisational development still hold its purpose and coherence. ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT It will be worth saying that it is an uphill task to put Organisational development under a single definition. In an organisation team building with top corporate management, Job enrichment in manufacturing are all examples of Organisational development (Cummings and Worley). Some definitions of Organisational development are described as under Organisational development is a Planned process of change in an organisations culture through the utilization of behavioural science technology, research and theory. (Warner Burke) Organisational development is An effort (1) planned, (2) organisation-wide, and (3) managed from the top, to (4) increase organisational effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organisations processes using behavioural science knowledge. (Richard Beckhard) Organisation development refers to a Long-range effort to improve an organisations problem-solving capabilities and its ability to cope with changes in its external environment with the help of external or internal behavioural-scientist consultants, or change agents, as they are sometimes called. (Wendell French) Organisational development is Long term, planned changes in the culture, technology and management of a total organisation or at least significant part of the total organisation. (Jamieson, Bach Kallick and Kur, 1984) From the above explained definitions it is quite obvious that all of them differ on several important dimensions such as some focus on culture, some on the importance of top management support while other on the importance of technology, there is no doubt that do exhibit some common features Organisational development is concerned with managing planned change targeting organisation-wide issues, problems and challenges. Organisational development is basically a data-driven process, collected through process of action research by ways such as observations, assessments and surveys. Intent of organisational development to improve organisational effectiveness and it serves the purpose of both the creation as well as the subsequent reinforcement of change. Organisational development is concerned with the change in strategy, structure and/or process of an entire system. Organisational development is based upon the application and transfer of behavioural knowledge and practice such as leadership, group dynamics, and organization design. (Cummings and Worley, 2005) An attempt have been made by Cummings and Worley to incorporate most of the views expressed in various definitions through the very definition explained below Organisation development is a system wide application and transfer of behavioural science knowledge to the planned development, improvement, and reinforcement of the strategies, structures and processes that lead to organisation effectiveness. Organisational development had its origin in the 1960s when the need of Organisational health preponderant. Organisational development tends to works by acknowledging the dysfunctions and correcting them in order to retain equilibrium. Initial approaches to Organisational development was developed on the theories of Kurt Lewin who described it as a planned change and is based on Field theory, Group dynamics, Action Research and Three step model. Apart from significant work carried out by Kurt Lewin there are other prominent researchers in this field such as Bullock and Batten(1985) who proposed a four phase model of planned change Exploration phase, Planning phase, Action phase and Integration phase. It will be worth mentioning that in spite of the extensive work carried the focus was on change at Individual and Group level ignoring the organisations in their entirety. The main objectives of Organisation development are to address and smoothen the process of change that will in turn help the organisation to achieve greater effectiveness. Evolution of Organisational Development Organisational development have emerged from five basic backgrounds or stems as described below (Cummings and Worley) Growth of National Training Laboratories (NTL) and development of training groups known as T-groups. This very stem of Organisational development pioneered the T-Group a small, unstructured group in which the participants are expected to gain from their own interactions and developing dynamics such as interpersonal relations, leadership, and group dynamics. With the passage of time T- Groups have declined on their importance as OD intervention and is often associated with the reputation of Organisational development as touchy-feely process. The practical aspects of T-Group organisations are better known as team building and worth saying that it is one of the institutionalized forms of Organisational development today. Inculcation of action research as a way of applying research to managing change. An important feature of action research was survey feedback. It was well-understood that in order to manage change research needs to be in close ties with action. Action research was seen as two-pronged process and it focuses on the fact that change requires action that can be achieved by carefully analysing the situation properly, looking out for all the possible alternatives and going for the most apt. to situation at hand (Bennet, 1983). Action research stresses that change can only be effective if it is taken at the group level by involving concerned ones and it must be a participative and collaborative process. (French and Bell, 1984; Lewin, 1947b). One of the key components of action research studies was the systematic collection of survey data that was fed back. The third one is associated with a normative view i.e. One best way to manage organisations. The third stem that popped out was the normative view which closely held the view that Human relations approach represents a One best way to manage organisations. Furthermore, this normative belief was illustrated by through Likerts Participative Management style i.e. Participative Group systems and Blake and Moutons Grid OD program with organisational effectiveness. (R. Likert, 1967; R. Blake and J. Mouton, 1964) The fourth stem can very well be described as the approach focusing on quality of work life and productivity. This very stem or we can say the background to OD can be described under two phases that initially took off by the projects developed and their emergence in 1950s, 60s and lasted until mid 1970s. This phase of QWL programs were concerned with providing employees high levels of discretion, task variety and feedback about results. One of the main characteristic of QWL was Self-managing groups as a form of work design. It lost its importance during 1970s due to other important and emerging issues such as inflation and energy costs. Second phase of QWL extended its scope and inculcated other features such as work flows, reward systems, management styles that effect employee productivity and satisfaction and is known by the term Employee Involvement. (Cummings and Worley, 05) The fifth and last stem of organisational development involves strategic change and organisation transformation. The latest of Strategic change background have an overarching influence on Organisational Developments evolution. In current scenario the environments known as technological, socio-political environments are more complex and uncertain than ever before which in turns calls for planned change process and strategic perspective from Organisational development (D. Naddler, 1988). Strategic change intervention helps to improve both the organisational effectiveness and its relationship to its environment. Moreover, Strategic changes to organisational development have made its presence felt in mergers and acquisitions, alliance formation. (M. Marks and P.Mirvis, 1998). All the above explained five stems have great influence on the current practice of organisational development as well as by the trends that are responsible of shaping change in the organisations. The commonality between all the backgrounds is that all wholeheartedly support the transfer of knowledge and skill to the client system and making them capable of managing better change. This field of organisational development is on a growth spree as it can be witnessed through the new researchers, theorists, practitioners who are building their work on the work of early pioneers and making it perfect for the contemporary situations. Findings Organisational change as a planned discipline is concerned with the application of behavioural knowledge and practice in order to help organisation to achieve greater effectiveness but growing with the evolution phase, Current phase of organisational development goes far beyond its humanistic origins and it will be worth saying that as now a days practitioners of Organisational development took a more prescriptive approach as compared to early pioneers of Organisation development who took analytical approach. Lawrence and Lorsch (1969) draw organisational development in terms of activities at three interfaces Organisation to environment, Group to group, and Individual to organisation. Till 1980s planned change approach as coined by Kurt Lewin with its set of tools, techniques and practitioners was the dominant approach in managing organisational change unless it faced criticism from certain quarters regarding its inability to cope up with emerging and coercive situations such as dyn amic and unpredictable environments. Even in todays scenario there is a continuing argument over the proper definition, its state of art and the skills required for practising it. Despite certain limitations cited who have opposed it by saying that Planned change is more flexible and holistic approach than it is being considered and is en route on a transition phase from being a miscellany of certain devices to becoming a mature, usable set of principles and procedures for organisational change (Cummings and Worley, 2001; French and Bell, 1995; Robert L.Kahn, 2002). The problems cited with Planned change to change are that it was developed for the organisations operating in Top-down, autocratic environment (Wooten and White, 1999:8). It also have been criticized on the other note that it is more emphasized on Incremental and isolated change rather than its ability to cope up with more radical and transformational change (Dawson,1994 ; Schein,1985). Planned change is more suitable fo r the group and individual context but lacks strength for system-wide change. One of the problems of organisational development is the inclusion of conversational and commercial terms as independent variables such as T-Group training as a number of activities lies with the preference of trainer itself (Back, 1972). Other problem that can be cited is that Organisational development relies too much on the expertise and experience of trainees and change agent. Though often the process of planned change in terms of three successive phases Unfreezing, Moving and Freezing is often quoted without proper understanding of it as well as the Lewinian quasi-stationary equilibrium is often seen but without undergoing any proper system conceptualization calls for more serious attention so that a more holistic approach can be developed in managing Organisational change. In a nutshell, it can be said that it is not fruitful to look solely at group and individual level, the need is to look for the organisations in their entirety as seen from the concepts developed by Kurt Lewin. Organisational development practitioners have understood the importance of understanding organisational culture and organisational learning. The concepts coined by Kurt Lewin and others pioneers in this field are still relevant and needs a more in-depth understanding. The need of the hour is the conjugation of the emergent approaches such as punctuated-equilibrium, continuous transformation models with the existing approaches so that more benefits can be realized in terms of organization effectiveness by achieving planned organisational change. In the end it is worth mentioning that organisational development is not that Strategic and this is the prime reason why Organisational development have lost its purpose and coherence. Though there has not been a single approach for Org anisational Development but the combination of all the approaches make it a very coherent approach and it needs to be developed with the ever changing scenario so that nothing affects its suitability. References en.wikipedia.orgwiki/organization_development. Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967; Argyris, 1962; Harisson, 1963, 66 Bernard Burnes, 2004 ; Managing Change W.Burke, Organisation Development: Principles and Practice (Boston: Little,Brown, 1982); Cummings and Worley (Organisation development and change, 2005) W. French, Organization development: objectives, Assumptions, and Strategies, California Management Review 12,2 (1969):23-24; Cummings and Worley (Organisation development and change, 2005) R. Beckhard, Organisational Development :Strategies and models (Reading,Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1969) ; Cummings and Worley (Organisation development and change, 2005) (Jamieson, Bach Kallick and Kur, 1984); Introduction and overview of Organisational Development as a data driven approach for Organisational change ( Janine Waclawski, Allan H.Church) Cummings and Worley (Organisation development and change, 2005) Bullock and Batten, 1985; Bernard Burnes, 2004 (Managing Change) French and Bell, 1984; Lewin, 1947b; Cummings and Worley (Organisation development and change, 2005) R. Likert, 1967; R. Blake and J. Mouton, 1964; Cummings and Worley (Organisation development and change, 2005) D. Naddler, 1988; M. Marks and P.Mirvis, 1998; Cummings and Worley (Organisation development and change, 2005) Cummings and Worley, 2001; French and Bell, 1995; Robert L.Kahn, 2002; Wooten and White, 1999:8; Organisational development : Some problems and proposals, (Robert L. Kahn,2002) Dawson,1994 ; Schein,1985; Organisational development : Some problems and proposals, (Robert L. Kahn,2002) Back, 1972; Organisational development : Some problems and proposals, (Robert L. Kahn,2002)

Production Management Of Movies

Production Management Of Movies Producers have overall control on every aspect of a films production, bringing together the Screenwriters, Director, cast, finances and production team. Their primary responsibility is to foster an environment in which the creative talents of the cast and crew can flourish Producers are therefore ultimately accountable for the success of the finished film. Producers many responsibilities span all four phases of production: Â · Development Producers are often responsible for coming up with the underlying premise of a production, or for selecting the screenplay. Producers secure the necessary rights, select the screenwriter and story editing team, raise the development financing, and supervise the development process. Â · Pre-production Producers typically bring together the key members of the creative team, including the Director, Cinematographer and principal cast. They assist the Executive Producers to raise finance for the production. Once this is in place, they select other key personnel, such as the Line Producer, Associate Producer and Production Manager, as well as the remaining Heads of Departments, such as Production Designer, Editor and Composer. Producers also participate in location scouting, and approve the final shooting script, production schedule and budget. Â · Production Producers are responsible for the day-to-day operations of the producing team, though many practical functions are delegated to the Line Producer and any Associate Producers. Producers are also in constant communication and consultation with the Director, and with other key creative personnel, on and off set. Producers approve all script changes and cost reports, and continue to serve as the primary point of contact for all production partners, investors and Distributors. Â · Post-production and marketing Producers are expected to liaise personally with post-production personnel, including the Editor, Composer, and Visual Effects staff. They then consult with all creative and financial personnel on the production of the answer (or final) print, and they are usually involved with the financial and distribution entities in planning the marketing and distribution of the finished film. It is rare to find one Producer who has the expertise and vision to exercise personal decision-making authority across all four phases of production. Producers normally delegate some of these functions to Executive Producers, Co-producers, Line Producers and Associate Producers. However, the Producer is responsible for the majority of the producing functions throughout all the processes of the film. Executive Producer The traditional role of the Executive Producer is to supervise the work of the Producer on behalf of the studio, the financiers or the distributors, and to ensure that the film is completed on time, and within budget, to agreed artistic and technical standards. The term often applies to a producer who has raised a significant proportion of a films finance, or who has secured the underlying rights to the project. Typically, Executive Producers are not involved in the technical aspects of the filmmaking process, but have played a crucial financial or creative role in ensuring that the project goes into production. Responsibilities As there may be several Executive Producers on a film, it is difficult to define their exact responsibilities. However, they usually fall into one or more of the following categories: Â · Development the Executive Producer secures the rights to a story and develops the screenplay, but then hands over to the lead Producer, and has no direct involvement in the physical production of the film. Â · Packaging the Executive Producer authorises and supervises the packaging of the film. Â · Financing the Executive Producer raises a significant proportion of funding for the film, assists with presales, or helps to secure distribution agreements. On smaller independent films, a well-known Producer, Director or star may also be accorded this title because their association with the project helps to facilitate contacts with financiers and Distributors. Â · Production the Executive Producer acts as a mentor to the Producer and supervises production for the financiers. This type of Executive Producer is almost always involved in short film production schemes, where they typically co-ordinate the films production from initial financing through to final distribution. Associate Producer or Assistant Producer Associate Producers carry out significant functions in the production or post-production process, which would otherwise be performed by the Producer, Executive Producer or Co-Producer. These responsibilities may range from helping to raise production finance at the beginning of the production process, to supervising the final stages of post-production. Associate Producers in Film are usually individuals within production companies who have played a particularly significant role in the development of the script or screenplay, or in the packaging process, or who have contributed important creative ideas to the production. They may be another producer; or a senior Script Editor who helps to shape the direction of the final drafts of the screenplay, and without whom the film may not be financed; or the Producers Assistant who supervises development or post production for the Producer in their absence. The term Associate Producer is also sometimes used to describe a Producer from a smalle r production company which is co-producing the film, who has typically raised a small amount of funding for the project, but not enough to warrant an Executive Producer or Co-Producer credit. Responsibilities Associate Producers contribute significantly to the production process, as they are responsible for specific elements delegated to them by the Producer. This diverse role may encompass development, packaging, raising production finance, supervising the production design team (sets, costumes, etc.), supervising post-production, or co-ordinating the work of the various visual effects companies. In fact, they may carry out any production work that the Producer is too busy to supervise personally, and which is not covered by one of the other production roles (e.g. Executive Producer, Co-producer, Line Producer). Whatever their exact role, Associate Producers must be able to troubleshoot any production difficulties or problems that come within their area of responsibility. Line Producer The Line Producer is one of the first people to be employed on a films production by the Producer and Executive Producers. Line Producers are rarely involved in the development of the project, but often play a crucial role in costing the production in order to provide investors with the confidence to invest in the project. As soon as the finance has been raised, the Line Producer supervises the preparation of the films budget, and the day-to-day planning and running of the production. Line Producers are usually employed on a freelance basis. They must expect to work long hours, though the role can be financially very rewarding. Career advancement is based on their experience and reputation. Where a Line Producer has a creative input to the production, he or she is often credited as a Co-producer. Responsibilities Line Producers are in charge of all the business aspects of the physical production of films. They are called Line Producers because they cannot start work until they know what the line is between the above-the-line costs, which relate to writers, producers, directors and cast, and the below-the-line costs which include everything else, e.g., crew salaries, equipment rentals, development costs, locations, set design and construction, insurance, etc. Line Producers are usually recruited onto the production team during the later stages of development. They are given the script and asked to assess the likely below the line cost of the production which involves breaking down the screenplay into a schedule a timetable for the film shoot that shows how long it will take to shoot each scene. From this schedule the Line Producer can accurately estimate the cost of each days shooting, and produce a provisional budget estimating the total amount of funding required. Once the Producer and Exec utive Producers have raised the required finance, the film can go into pre-production. During pre-production, Line Producers work closely with the Director, Production Manager, First Assistant Director, Art Director and other Heads of Department to prepare the production schedule and budget, and to set the shoot date. Line Producers oversee all other pre-production activities, including hiring the production team, setting up the production office, location scouting, ensuring compliance with regulations and codes of practice, sourcing equipment and suppliers, selecting crew, engaging supporting artistes and contributors, and monitoring the progress of the art department and other production departments. During production, Line Producers hand over control of the final budget to the Production Accountant, and delegate the day-to-day operation of the production office to the Production Manager and Production Co-ordinator. However, Line Producers are ultimately responsible for overseeing all activities, and for ensuring that the production is completed on time and within budget. This requires setting up and implementing financial monitoring systems, controlling production expenditure, controlling production materials, and monitoring and controlling the progress of productions. Line Producers usually allow a 10% contingency in the budget to cater for unforeseen circumstances, and spend much of their time juggling figures and resources. Line Producers are responsible for certain Health and Safety procedures, and for sorting out any insurance claims. At the end of the shoot, the Line Producer oversees the wrap, or winding down, of the production. Assistant Production Co-ordinator The Assistant Production Co-ordinator acts as a general assistant to the Production Co-ordinator, performing duties relating to the preparation, distribution and filing of paperwork, both within the production office and on set. Assistant Production Co-ordinators are almost always self-employed, and must be prepared to work long hours, particularly during the final week of pre-production. Most UK films employ one Assistant Production Co-ordinator; however, larger productions may employ two or more. Responsibilities Assistant Production Co-ordinators work under the direct supervision of a Production Co-ordinator. Their duties vary according to the production phase, and the daily requirements of the production office. Responsibilities may be spread across a number of related areas, including: Â · Production Office setting up, maintaining and closing down the Production Office, for example, ordering furniture, equipment and supplies. Â · Travel Accommodation helping to co-ordinate travel, accommodation, work permits, visas, medical examinations and any immunisations for principal crew and cast to conform with insurance and foreign travel requirements. Â · General production duties including typing, filing, answering the telephone, and other related office duties. Â · Transportation helping to organise the pick-up and delivery of equipment and personnel by the Unit Drivers. Â · Production paperwork assisting the Production Co-ordinator to prepare and distribute shooting schedules, crew and cast lists, call sheets, production reports, movement orders, scripts and script revisions. Production Runner or Production Assistant Production Runners are the foot soldiers of the production team, performing small but important tasks in the office, around the set and on location. Their duties may involve anything from office administration to crowd control, and from public relations to cleaning up locations. Production Runners are usually employed on a freelance basis, are not very well paid, and their hours are long and irregular. However, the work is usually extremely varied and provides a good entry-level role into the film industry. What is the job? Production Runners are deployed by the Producer and by other production staff, such as the Production Co-ordinator, to assist wherever they are needed on productions. Their responsibilities vary considerably depending on where Production Runners are assigned. In the Production Office duties typically include: assisting with answering telephones, filing paperwork and data entry, arranging lunches, dinners, and transportation reservations, photocopying, general office administration, and distributing production paperwork. On-set duties typically include: acting as a courier, helping to keep the set clean and tidy and distributing call sheets, Health and Safety notices, and other paperwork. On location shoots, Production Runners may also be required to help to co-ordinate the extras, and to perform crowd control duties, except where this work is dangerous, or performed by police officers or other official personnel. Co-producer A Co-producer is typically a Line Producer who has also performed a substantial portion of the creative producing function. Alternatively, they may be the lead Producer from another production company that is co-producing the film, or a partner or corporate officer from the production entity producing the film. In rare cases, a Co-producer may also be the person who optioned, developed or packaged the project. In all instances, Co-producers are subordinate to the Producer. Occasionally, the title Co-producer is accorded to a producer who finds, options, develops, or packages the project, but does not own the rights, and who plays a less significant role in the physical production of the film. For example, Co-producers may be relatively new Producers who need to work with a more senior Producer in order to package, finance and deliver the finished film. It should be noted that if a project has more than one Producer, it does not mean that these individuals are Co-producers in the tech nical sense of the term. Responsibilities Co-producers responsibilities vary enormously depending on which type of Co-producer they are. However, they always have less responsibility than the Producer for the completion of the film. Â · Where the Co-producer is also the Line Producer, he or she is responsible for all the business and logistical aspects during the main phase of film production. The key difference between this type of Co-producer and the Line Producer is that he or she also performs a significant part of the creative producing function, whether it be helping with casting, recruiting the Director, or hiring other key Heads of Department. Â · Where the Co-producer is a partner or corporate officer of the production entity producing the film, he or she plays a key role in the development of the film project, assists with the physical production, or supervises post-production to enable the Producer to move on to another production. Â · Where the Co-producer is the lead Producer from another production entity that is producing the film as part of an international co-production, he or she will usually raise a significant portion of the budget for the film, but have less creative input than the lead Producer. In some cases Co-producers choose to be credited as Co-producer rather than as Executive Producer, in order to indicate that they played an important part in the physical production of the film.